Skip to content

Commit

Permalink
Merge pull request #507 from fariz04/patch-2
Browse files Browse the repository at this point in the history
Partial Indonesian translation part #2 (1172 words) 03_p01_ch07_04.md
  • Loading branch information
TheOutspokenKing authored Feb 11, 2018
2 parents 24119fd + 9d722f5 commit 0b4ddfa
Showing 1 changed file with 7 additions and 7 deletions.
Original file line number Diff line number Diff line change
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
The answer depends on whether or not the demonstrated preference for fractional reserve banking services, that is, the issue and acceptance of fiduciary media, involves solely and exclusively the property of the two contracting parties. At any given point in time, the quantity of property (appropriated goods)—whether consumer goods, producer goods, or money—is given. Fractional reserve banking does not increase the quantity of existing property (money or otherwise), nor does it transfer existing property from one party to another. Rather, it involves the production and sale of an increased quantity of titles to an unchanged stock of money property (gold); that is, the supply of and the demand for counterfeit money and illegitimate appropriation. As in every other case of counterfeiting (forgery)—of stock and commodity certificates, banknotes, land titles, original art, etc.—the issue and sale of money copies (banknotes) uncovered by originals (gold) will physically diminish or despoil the original money—stock, commodity, land, or art—owners’ property. But a counterfeiter of money is particularly dangerous and invasive because of money’s defining characteristic as the most easily salable and widely acceptable of all goods; that is, because *money*-counterfeits open to their seller the widest possible range of objects for undue appropriation (from money to almost every other form of real property).
Jawabannya tergantung pada apakah tidak atau menunjukkan preferensi untuk layanan perbankan pecahan cadangan, yaitu masalah dan penerimaan media fidusia, hanya melibatkan properti milik kedua pihak yang melakukan kontrak. Pada suatu waktu tertentu, jumlah barang (barang yang disesuaikan)-apakah barang digunakan, barang produsen, atau uang-diberikan. perbankan pecahan cadangan tidak meningkatkan jumlah properti yang ada (uang atau lainnya), juga tidak mentransfer properti yang ada dari satu pihak ke pihak lain. Melainkan, ini melibatkan produksi dan penjualan sejumlah besar judul ke persediaan properti uang (emas) yang tidak berubah; yaitu, pasokan dan permintaan uang palsu dan perampasan yang tidak sah. Seperti dalam kasus pemalsuan lainnya (pemalsuan)-sertifikat saham dan komoditas, uang kertas, sertifikat tanah, seni asli, dan lain-lain-penerbitan dan penjualan salinan uang (uang kertas) yang ditemukan oleh barang asli (emas) secara fisik akan berkurang atau dirampas harta benda asli, komoditas, tanah, atau properti pemilik-seni. Tapi pemalsuan uang sangat berbahaya dan berbahaya karena karakteristik penentu uang sebagai barang yang paling mudah laku dan dapat diterima secara luas dari semua barang; Artinya, karena *uang*-palsu terbuka untuk mereka jual seluas mungkin untuk objek penggunaan yang tidak semestinya (dari uang ke hampir semua bentuk properti nyata lainnya).

Thus, it is no wonder that of all forms of forgery, the counterfeiting of money has always held the greatest attraction. So long as money exists there will also exist a persistent demand for counterfeit money. Regardless of this attraction and demand, however, there is nothing wrong with a blanket prohibition against fractional reserve banking. No one may operate a fractional reserve bank for the same reason that no one, in any other line of business, may engage in counterfeiting, that is, the production and sale of titles or copies to non-existing property or originals. In a court of law, it would be sufficient that a single money or other property owner brought suit against a fractional reserve bank as a manufacturer of counterfeit money, and the bank immediately would have to cease its current operation and be reduced to its two original functions: deposits and loans. An interest-yielding (rather than fee-charging) deposit bank is a contradiction in terms: it is a counterfeiting money warehouser, and must be outlawed, irrespective of any benefits accruing to bank depositors, borrowers, and owners. To do so is not a restriction on freedom of contract in the market for banking services, but the requirement of lawful money and banking. Everyone putting money or other resources into interest-yielding deposit accounts is engaged in undue and unlawful appropriation.[^24]
Dengan demikian, tak mengherankan jika dari semua bentuk pemalsuan, pemalsuan uang selalu memegang daya tarik terbesar. Selama uang ada maka akan ada permintaan uang palsu yang terus-menerus. Terlepas dari daya tarik dan permintaan ini, bagaimanapun, tidak ada yang salah dengan larangan umum terhadap perbankan pecahan cadangan. Tidak ada yang bisa mengoperasikan perbankan pecahan cadangan karena alasan yang sama bahwa tidak seorang pun, dalam bidang usaha lainnya, dapat melakukan pemalsuan, yaitu produksi dan penjualan judul atau fotokopi ke properti atau aslinya yang tidak ada. Di pengadilan, cukup uang tunggal atau pemilik properti lainnya membawa tuntutan terhadap perbankan pecahan cadangan sebagai produsen uang palsu, dan bank tersebut segera harus menghentikan operasinya saat ini dan dikurangi menjadi dua fungsi asli: deposito dan pinjaman. Deposito yang menghasilkan bunga (bukan biaya-pengisian) adalah kontradiksi dalam hal: ini adalah gudang uang palsu, dan harus dilarang, terlepas dari manfaat yang diperoleh dari depositor bank, peminjam, dan pemilik bank. Untuk melakukannya bukan pembatasan kebebasan kontrak di pasar untuk layanan perbankan, namun kebutuhan uang dan perbankan yang sah. Semua orang yang memasukkan uang atau sumber daya lainnya ke bunga-menghasilkan deposit akun bergerak dalam bidang perampasan yang tidak semestinya dan melanggar hukum.[^24]

The relationship between states and fractional reserve banks is even more intimate, and in any case quite different from that suggested by Selgin and White. They claim that it would be an illegitimate interference with the operation of free markets if the state were to prohibit fractional reserve banking. In fact, fractional reserve banking is the result of an illegitimate state interference with the market, and prohibiting it would only repair this earlier intervention. Selgin and White recognize that in the evolution of a free banking system, 100-percent-reserve-deposit banking and, functionally separated, loan banking, must (praxeologically) precede fractional reserve banking. In their view, fractional reserve banking is the natural outgrowth of an earlier 100-percent-reserve system. However, they do not offer an explanation for this transition as a natural solution to a problem that cannot be solved under the prior system of 100-percent banking (in the way that Austrians conceive of money as the natural solution to the problem of lacking coincidences of wants under a preceding barter system). They merely affirm that the transition actually occurred.
Hubungan antara negara bagian dan perbankan pecahan cadangan bahkan lebih intim, dan bagaimanapun juga berbeda dari yang disarankan oleh Selgin and White. Mereka mengklaim bahwa hal itu akan menjadi gangguan yang tidak sah dengan pengoperasian pasar bebas jika negara tersebut melarang perbankan pecahan cadangan. Faktanya, perbankan pecahan cadangan adalah akibat dari campur tangan negara yang tidak sah terhadap pasar, dan melarangnya hanya akan memperbaiki intervensi sebelumnya. Selgin dan White menyadari bahwa dalam evolusi sistem perbankan bebas, perbankan dengan cadangan 100 persen, dan yang dipisahkan secara fungsional, perbankan pinjaman, harus (praksiologis) mendahului perbankan pecahan cadangan. Dalam pandangan mereka, perbankan pecahan cadangan adalah hasil alami dari sistem cadangan 100 persen sebelumnya. Namun, mereka tidak menawarkan penjelasan untuk transisi ini sebagai solusi alami untuk sebuah masalah yang tidak dapat dipecahkan di bawah sistem perbankan 100 persen sebelumnya (seperti cara orang Austria menganggap uang sebagai solusi alami untuk masalah dari keinginan yang kurang tepat di bawah sistem barter sebelumnya). Mereka hanya menegaskan bahwa transisi benar terjadi.

While one can easily see why and how a banker might want to take advantage of the possibilities of counterfeiting, it is just as clear that any such attempt would not go by without quickly and continually being challenged. Surely the current writers and thousands of earlier legal and economic theorists would have accused fractional reserve banks of counterfeiting and would have brought suit against them. The further course of banking evolution would then depend on a court decision. If the court decided that the issue of fiduciary media *qua* titles to money uncovered by money constitutes counterfeiting, fractional reserve banks would not come into existence; and only if it decided otherwise would they ever actually appear. Nothing in this evolution is natural; everything appears rather deliberate. Nor would the outcome of such trials naturally be to Selgin and White’s liking. On the contrary, if one were to assume that fractional reserve bankers would be tried on counterfeiting charges before a jury of their own peers (of other businessmen), we dare say that, empirically, the overwhelming number of such cases would end in conviction (the testimony of Selgin and White notwithstanding). Why, then, the almost complete dominance of fractional reserve banking?
Sementara orang dapat dengan mudah melihat mengapa dan bagaimana seorang bankir mungkin ingin memanfaatkan kemungkinan pemalsuan, sama jelasnya bahwa usaha semacam itu tidak akan berjalan dengan cepat dan terus-menerus mendapat tantangan. Tentunya penulis dan ribuan teoretikus hukum dan ekonomi saat ini akan menuduh bank pemalsuan retribusi palsu dan akan mengajukan tuntutan terhadap mereka. Jalannya perkembangan evolusi perbankan selanjutnya akan bergantung pada keputusan pengadilan. Jika pengadilan memutuskan bahwa penerbitan media fidusia *sebagai* judul untuk uang yang ditemukan merupakan pemalsuan, perbankan pecahan cadangan tidak akan ada; dan hanya jika memutuskan sebaliknya apakah mereka benar-benar akan muncul. Tidak ada satu pun evolusi ini yang alami; semuanya tampak seperti sengaja. Juga tidak akan hasil dari uji coba tersebut secara alami sesuai dengan keinginan Selgin dan White. Sebaliknya, jika seseorang berasumsi bahwa bankir pecahan cadangan akan diadili atas tuduhan pemalsuan dihadapan dewan juri dari rekan mereka sendiri (pengusaha lain), kami berani mengatakan bahwa, secara empiris, jumlah kasus yang demikian akan berakhir dengan hukuman (kesaksian Selgin dan White). Jadi, apa sebab dominasi yang hampir selesai dari perbankan pecahan cadangan?

The answer is that the courts deciding these matters everywhere are state courts. Only if a single court possesses a territorial monopoly of jurisdiction is it possible that the dispute at hand could be settled once and for all. And that it has been uniformly settled in the way it was, that is, by permitting rather than prohibiting fractional reserve banking, follows from the interest of every court and judge *qua* state court and state judge. The owners and agents of the state recognize fully as much as bankers the potentials of money counterfeiting as a source of income. In permitting bankers to issue fiduciary media (rather than prohibiting the practice as counterfeiting), banks are made existentially dependent on the state. They can only operate because the state, due to its territorial monopoly of jurisdiction, shields them from counterfeiting suits; and the state does so only under the provision that banks will share with it in the extra revenue and credit derived from legalized counterfeiting. Hence, by permitting fractional reserve free banking the state actually creates the first and preliminary form of a joint-bank-state-counterfeiting cartel under its own ultimate control.
Jawabannya adalah bahwa dimanapun pengadilan yang memutuskan masalah ini adalah pengadilan negeri. Hanya jika sebuah pengadilan tunggal memiliki monopoli teritorial yurisdiksi apakah mungkin perselisihan di tangan dapat diselesaikan sekali dan untuk selamanya. Dan bahwa hal itu telah diselesaikan secara merata seperti itu, yaitu dengan mengizinkan dibandingkan melarang perbankan pecahan cadangan, mengikuti dari kepentingan setiap pengadilan dan hakim *sebagai* pengadilan negeri dan hakim negara. Pemilik dan wakil negara mengakui sepenuhnya banyak bankir berpotensi melakukan pemalsuan uang sebagai sumber pendapatan. Dalam mengizinkan bankir menerbitkan media fidusia (daripada melarang praktik sebagai pemalsuan), bank dibuat bergantung secara eksistensial pada negara. Mereka hanya bisa beroperasi karena negara, karena monopoli teritorial yurisdiksinya, melindungi mereka dari tuntutan pemalsuan; dan negara melakukannya hanya di bawah ketentuan bahwa bank akan membagikannya dengan pendapatan tambahan dan kredit yang berasal dari pemalsuan yang dilegalisir. Oleh karena itu, dengan mengizinkan perbankan bebas pecahan cadangan, negara benar-benar menciptakan bentuk awal dan awal dari kartel jaringan-pemalsuan-bank-negara di bawah kendali utamanya sendiri.

Once fractional reserve banking receives blanket protection from the state, it follows naturally that fractional reserve banks will outcompete 100 percent reserve banks. Not, as Selgin and White[^25] assert, because they are better or more efficient banks, but for the reason that, once money counterfeiting is permitted, banks that engage in it tend to outcompete banks that do not. That is, for the same reason that, once industrial air pollution is permitted a polluting steel producer will tend to outcompete a steel producer who does not pollute, and for the same reason that a protection agency with taxing powers, a state, will tend to outcompete protectors without taxing power. Put differently, it is not always the case that good drives out bad. This is the case only so long as private property rights are inviolate. If they are not, and there exist privileged agents or agencies, who are exempt from the universal rules regarding the appropriation, production and transfer of property, then these will tend to outcompete other normal agents. In this case, bad drives out good. Thus, it is completely mistaken to interpret the empirical success of fractional reserve banking as proof of its greater economic efficiency. The success of fractional over 100 percent deposit banking is no more a market phenomenon than is the success of tax-yielding protectors, states, over competitive and nontaxing security producers. It is false to suggest, as Selgin and White do, that fractional reserve banking has stood the market test and represents the outcome of voluntary consumer choices. After all, 100-percent-reserve-deposit banking is not outlawed and consumers are free to bank with them instead of fractional banks if they so prefer. Or would they likewise argue that the polluting steel producer had stood the test of the market because, after all, consumers are free to buy their steel from nonpolluting steel producers, or that states have proven themselves in the market because, after all, consumers are free to buy their security also from agencies without any tax and jurisdictional powers?[^26]
Setelah perbankan pecahan cadangan menerima perlindungan menyeluruh dari negara, maka wajar jika perbankan pecahan cadangan akan melebihi 100 persen bank cadangan. Bukan, seperti yang ditetapkan oleh Selgin dan White[^25], karena bank-bank itu lebih baik atau lebih efisien, namun dengan alasan bahwa, jika pemalsuan uang diizinkan, bank yang terlibat di dalamnya cenderung tidak bersaing dengan bank yang tidak. Artinya, untuk alasan yang sama, sekali polusi udara industri diizinkan produsen baja yang berpolusi akan cenderung mengalahkan produsen baja yang tidak mencemari, dan karena alasan yang sama bahwa badan perlindungan dengan kekuatan pajak, sebuah negara, akan cenderung melampaui perlindungan tanpa mengenakan pajak. Tempatkan secara berbeda, tidak selalu kasus yang baik mengusir yang buruk. Ini hanya berlaku selama hak kepemilikan pribadi tidak dapat dilanggar. Jika tidak, ada wakil atau wakil istimewa, yang dibebaskan dari peraturan universal mengenai perampasan, produksi dan pengalihan harta benda, maka ini akan cenderung melampaui wakil normal lainnya. Dalam kasus ini, mendorong buruk keluar dengan baik. Dengan demikian, benar-benar keliru untuk menafsirkan keberhasilan empiris perbankan pecahan cadangan sebagai bukti efisiensi ekonomi yang lebih besar. Keberhasilan pecahan lebih dari 100 persen deposit banking tidak lebih merupakan fenomena pasar daripada keberhasilan para pemberi perlindungan, negara, dan produsen keamanan yang kompetitif dan tidak mengikat. Salah jika menyarankan, seperti yang dilakukan Selgin and White, bahwa perbankan cadangan fraksional telah menjadi ujian pasar dan merupakan hasil dari pilihan konsumen secara sukarela. Bagaimanapun, perbankan dengan cadangan 100 persen tidak dilarang dan konsumen bebas untuk bank dengan mereka daripada bank pecahan jika mereka lebih memilih. Atau, apakah mereka juga berpendapat bahwa produsen baja yang mencemari itu telah melakukan pengujian pasar karena, setelah semua, konsumen bebas membeli baja mereka dari produsen baja tanpa polusi, atau negara bagian tersebut telah membuktikan dirinya di pasar karena, Lagi pula, konsumen bebas untuk membeli keamanan mereka juga dari agen tanpa pajak dan kekuatan yurisdiksi?[^26]

Moreover, whereas 100-percent-reserve banking is crisis-proof, fractional reserve banking, as even Selgin and White admit, is not in fact, as we can only briefly indicate here. A system of free fractional reserve banking will, in accordance with Mises’s theory of interventionism, lead to further state interventions and the successive devolution of money. Free fractional reserve banking *qua* state-protected competition in counterfeiting will lead to a steady contest among banks of testing the viability of increasingly lower reserve ratios. This is bound to lead to banking crises, and these will be used by governments for the introduction of central banking. Central banking leads to still more counterfeiting, and to the abolition of commodity money and adoption of national fiat currencies. Lastly, international—inter-central bank—competition in fiat money counterfeiting will lead to state bankruptcies, and their financial default will be used by the most powerful among the surviving states for the establishment of a one-world government, central bank, and fiat currency.

Expand Down Expand Up @@ -42,4 +42,4 @@ While we have no difficulty accepting the distinction drawn here between competi

The error can be revealed by analogy. Selgin and White are paraphrased here: We also reject the notion that competitive states issuing tax liabilities can create taxes out of thin air. By the nature of state budgets all expenditures must be funded by conquest, robbery, or theft. Neither source of funds can be conjured out of thin air. No one is forced to hold any particular state’s tax liabilities or buy its shares; anyone can move and pay taxes to another state, or to no state. A competitive state must therefore *expend real resources* to attract a clientele by the provision of protection and services. The notion that a state can increase taxes gratuitously is valid only with respect to the inframarginal taxes of a monopoly state; it does not apply to a state in a competitive system. Thus, competition will beat down the returns to capital invested in states until the marginal state is earning only the normal rate of return.

According to Selgin and White, it would seem to follow that taxation (like money counterfeiting) is not to be considered a problem until the arrival of a single world monopoly bank. Up until then, under competitive conditions, taxes represent nothing but a normal market income.
According to Selgin and White, it would seem to follow that taxation (like money counterfeiting) is not to be considered a problem until the arrival of a single world monopoly bank. Up until then, under competitive conditions, taxes represent nothing but a normal market income.

0 comments on commit 0b4ddfa

Please sign in to comment.