Rebooting the `std::bitset` franchise

xstd::bit_set<N> is a modern and opinionated reimagining of std::bitset<N>, keeping what time has proven to be effective, and throwing out what is not. xstd::bit_set is a fixed-size ordered set of integers that is compact and fast. It does less work than std::bitset (e.g. no bounds-checking and no throwing of out_of_range exceptions) yet offers more (e.g. fulll constexpr-ness and bidirectional iterators over individual 1-bits). This enables fixed-size bit-twiddling with set-like syntax (identical to std::set<int>), typically leading to cleaner, more expressive code that seamlessly interacts with the rest of the Standard Library.

Design choices for a `bitset` data structure

"A bitset can be seen as either an array of bits or a set of integers. [...] Common usage suggests that dynamic-length bitsets are seldom needed."

Chuck Allison, ISO/WG21/N0075, November 25, 1991

The above quote is from the first C++ Standard Committee proposal on what would eventually become std::bitset<N>. The quote highlights two design choices to be made for a bitset data structure:

a sequence of bool versus an ordered set of int;
fixed-size versus variable-size storage.

A bitset should also optimize for both space (using contiguous storage) and time (using CPU-intrinsics for data-parallelism) wherever possible.

The current `bit` landscape

The C++ Standard Library and Boost provide the following optimized data structures in the landscape spanned by the aforementioned design decisions and optimization directives, as shown in the table below.

	fixed-size	variable-size
sequence of `bool`	`std::bitset<N>`	`std::vector<bool, Allocator>` `boost::dynamic_bitset<Block, Allocator>`
ordered set of `int`	`std::bitset<N>`	`boost::dynamic_bitset<Block, Allocator>` (dense) `boost::container::flat_set<int, Compare, Allocator>` (sparse)

Notes:

Both std::bitset and boost::dynamic_bitset are not clear about the interface they provide. E.g. both offer a hybrid of sequence-like random element access (through operator[]) as well as primitives for set-like bidirectional iteration (using non-Standard GCC extensions _Find_first and _Find_next in the case of std::bitset).
It has been known for over two decades that providing a variable-size sequence of bool through specializing std::vector<bool> was an unfortunate design choice.
For ordered sets, there is a further design choice whether to optimize for dense sets or for sparse sets. Dense sets require a single bit per potential element, whereas sparse sets require a single int per actual element. For 32-bit integers, if less (more) than 1 in 32 elements (3.125%) are actually present in a set, a dense representation will be less (more) compact than a sparse representation.
Only boost::dynamic_bitset allows storage configuration through its Block template parameter (defaulted to unsigned long).

A reimagined `bit` landscape

The aforementioned issues with the current bit landscape can be resolved by implementing a single-purpose container for each of the four quadrants in the design space.

	fixed-size	variable-size
sequence of `bool`	`xstd::bit_array<N, Block>`	`xstd::bit_vector<Block, Allocator>`
ordered set of `int`	`xstd::bit_set<N, Block>` (this library)	`xstd::dynamic_bit_set<Block, Allocator>`

Notes:

Each data structure is clear about the interface it provides: sequences are random access containers and ordered sets are bidirectional containers.
The variable-size sequence of bool is named xstd::bit_vector and decoupled from the general std::vector class template.
All containers use a dense (single bit per element) representation. Variable-size sparse sets of int can be provided by flat_set, either in Boost or in C++ 23.
All containers allow storage configuration through their Block template parameter (defaulted to std::size_t).

This library provides one of the four outlined quadrants: xstd::bit_set<N> as a fixed-size ordered set of int. The other three quadrants are not implemented.

Hello World: generating (twin) primes

The code below demonstrates how a standards conforming set implementation can be used to implement the Sieve of Eratosthenes. This algorithm generates all prime numbers below a number n. Note that the implementation below requires seamless interaction with the C++20 (and beyond) <ranges> library and does not use manual iterator manipulation or index arithmetic.

template<class C>
auto sift(C& primes, int m)
{
    primes.erase(m);
}

template<class C>
struct generate_candidates
{
    auto operator()(int n) const
    {
        return std::views::iota(2, n) | std::ranges::to<C>();
    }
};

template<class C>
auto sift_primes(int n)
{
    auto primes = generate_candidates<C>()(n);
    for (auto p
        : primes
        | std::views::take_while([&](auto x) { return x * x < n; })
    ) {
        for (auto m
            : std::views::iota(p * p, n)
            | std::views::stride(p)
        ) {
            sift(primes, m);
        }
    }
    return primes;
}

Given a set of primes, generating the twin primes can be done by iterating over pairs of adjacent primes, filtering on their difference being exactly 2, selecting the first element of each pair, and converting that to a new set:

template<class C>
auto filter_twins(C const& primes)
{
    return primes
        | std::views::pairwise
        | std::views::filter([](auto&& x) { auto&& [ first, second ] = x; return first + 2 == second; })
        | std::views::elements<0>
        | std::ranges::to<C>()
    ;
}

The calling code for these algorithms is listed below. Here, the pretty-printing as a set using {} delimiters is triggered by the nested key_type. Note that xstd::bit_set<N> acts as a drop-in replacement for std::set<int> (or boost::container::flat_set<int>).

int main()
{
    constexpr auto N = 100;
    using C = xstd::bit_set<N>; /* or std::set<int> or boost::container::flat_set<int> */

    auto primes = sift_primes<C>(N);
    assert(fmt::format("{}", primes) == "{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97}");

    auto twins = filter_twins(primes);
    assert(fmt::format("{}", twins)  == "{3, 5, 11, 17, 29, 41, 59, 71}");
}

Requirements for `set`-like behaviour

Looking at the above code, the following four ingredients are necessary to implement the Sieve of Eratosthenes:

Bidirectional iterators begin and end in the set's own namespace (to work with range-for and the <ranges> library);
Constructors taking a pair of iterators or a range (in order for std::ranges::to to construct a set);
A nested type key_type (in order for the {fmt} library to use {} delimiters);
A member function erase to remove elements (for other applications: the rest of a set's interface).

xstd::bit_set<N> implements all four of the above requirements. Note that Visual C++ support is finicky at the moment because its <ranges> implementation cannot (yet) handle the xstd::bit_set<N> proxy iterators and proxy references correctly.

Retrofitting `set`-like behaviour onto `std::bitset<N>` and `boost::dynamic_bitset<>`

Can we use Without access to their implementations, it's impossible to add nested types and member functions

Data-parallelism

template<class C>
struct generate_empty
{
    auto operator()(auto) const
    {
        return C();
    }
};

template<int N, std::unsigned_integral Block>
auto fill(xstd::bit_set<N, Block>& empty)
{
    empty.fill();
}

template<class C>
struct generate_candidates
{
    auto operator()(auto n) const
    {
        auto candidates = generate_empty<C>()(n);
        fill(candidates);
        sift(candidates, 0);
        sift(candidates, 1);
        return candidates;
    }
};

template<class C>
auto filter_twins(C const& primes)
{
    return primes & primes >> 2;
}

int main()
{
    constexpr auto N = 100;
    using C = xstd::bit_set<N>; /* or std::bitset<N> or boost::dynamic_bitset<> */

    auto const primes = sift_primes<C>(N);
    assert(fmt::format("{}", primes | xstd::views::as_set) == "{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97}");

    auto const twins = filter_twins(primes);
    assert(fmt::format("{}", twins  | xstd::views::as_set) == "{3, 5, 11, 17, 29, 41, 59, 71}");
}

which has as output:

{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97}
{3, 5, 11, 17, 29, 41, 59, 71}

Sequence of bits

How would the Sieve of Eratosthenes code look when using a sequence of bits? The essential difference (apart from differently named member functions) is the lack of iterators. The GCC Standard Library libstdc++ provides member functions _Find_first and _Find_next for std::bitset<N> as non-standard extensions. For boost::dynamic_bitset<>, similarly named member functions find_first and find_next exist. We combine these functions into a ranges::view_interface to provide a set_view with a key_type and forward iterators begin and end. The links in the table below provide the full code examples for std::bitset<N> and boost::dynamic_bitset<>.

Library	Try it online
`xstd::bit_set<N>`
`std::bitset<N>`
`boost::dynamic_bitset<>`

Documentation

The interface for the class template xstd::bit_set<N> is the coherent union of the following building blocks:

An almost drop-in implementation of the full interface of std::set<int>.
An almost complete translation of the std::bitset<N> member functions to the std::set<int> naming convention.
The single-pass and short-circuiting set predicates from boost::dynamic_bitset.
The bitwise operators from std::bitset<N> and boost::dynamic_bitset reimagined as composable and data-parallel set algorithms.

The full interface of xstd::bit_set is constexpr.

1 An almost drop-in replacement for `std::set<int>`

xstd::bit_set<N> is a fixed-size ordered set of integers, providing conceptually the same functionality as std::set<int, std::less<int>, Allocator>, where Allocator statically allocates memory to store N integers. In particular, xstd::bit_set<N> has:

No customized key comparison: xstd::bit_set uses std::less<int> as its fixed comparator (accessible through its nested types key_compare and value_compare). In particular, the xstd::bit_set constructors do not take a comparator argument.
No allocators: xstd::bit_set is a fixed-size set of non-negative integers and does not dynamically allocate memory. In particular, xstd::bit_set does not provide a get_allocator() member function and its constructors do not take an allocator argument.
No splicing: xstd::bit_set is not a node-based container, and does not provide the splicing operations as defined in p0083r3. In particular, xstd::bit_set does not provide the nested types node_type and insert_return_type, the extract() or merge() member functions, or the insert() overloads taking a node handle.

Minor semantic differences between common functionality in xstd::bit_set<N> and std::set<int> are:

the xstd::bit_set member function max_size is a static member function (because N is a constant expression).
the xstd::bit_set iterators are proxy iterators, and taking their address yields proxy references. The difference should be undetectable. See the FAQ at the end of this document.
the xstd::bit_set members fill, complement, replace and full do not exist for std::set.

With these caveats in mind, all fixed-size, defaulted comparing, non-allocating, non-splicing std::set<int> code in the wild should continue to work out-of-the-box with xstd::bit_set<N>.

2 An almost complete translation of `std::bitset<N>`

Almost all existing std::bitset<N> code has a direct translation (i.e. achievable through search-and-replace) to an equivalent xstd::bit_set<N> expression, with the same and familiar semantics as std::set<int> or boost::flat_set<int>.

`std::bitset<N>`	`xstd::bit_set<N>`	Notes
`bs.set()`	`bs.fill()`	not a member of `std::set<int>`
`bs.set(n)`	`bs.add(n)` `bs.insert(n)`	no bounds-checking or `out_of_range` exceptions
`bs.set(n, v)` `bs[n] = v`	`v ? bs.add(n) : bs.pop(n)`	no bounds-checking or `out_of_range` exceptions
`bs.reset()`	`bs.clear()`	returns `void` as `std::set<int>`, not `*this` as `std::bitset<N>`
`bs.reset(n)`	`bs.pop(n)` `bs.erase(n)`	no bounds-checking or `out_of_range` exceptions
`bs.flip()`	`bs.complement()`	not a member of `std::set<int>`
`bs.flip(n)`	`bs.complement(n)`	no bounds-checking or `out_of_range` exceptions not a member of `std::set<int>`
`bs.count()`	`bs.size()`
`bs.size()`	`bs.max_size()`	a `static` member
`bs.test(n)` `bs[n]`	`bs.contains(n)`	no bounds-checking or `out_of_range` exceptions
`bs.all()`	`bs.full()`	not a member of `std::set<int>`
`bs.any()`	`!bs.empty()`
`bs.none()`	`bs.empty()`

The semantic differences between xstd::bit_set<N> and std::bitset<N> are:

xstd::bit_set<N> has a static member function max_size();
xstd::bit_set<N> does not do bounds-checking for its members insert, erase, replace and contains. Instead of throwing an out_of_range exception for argument values outside the range [0, N), this behavior is undefined. This gives xstd::bit_set<N> a small performance benefit over std::bitset<N>.

Functionality from std::bitset<N> that is not in xstd::bit_set<N>:

No integer or string constructors: xstd::bit_set cannot be constructed from unsigned long long, std::string or const char*.
No integer or string conversion operators: xstd::bit_set does not convert to unsigned long, unsigned long long or std::string.
No I/O streaming operators: xstd::bit_set does not provide overloaded I/O streaming operator<< and operator>>.
No hashing: xstd::bit_set does not provide a specialization for std::hash<>.

I/O functionality can be obtained through third-party libraries such as {fmt}, which has generic support for ranges such as xstd::bit_set. Similarly, hashing functionality can be obtained through third-party libraries such as N3980 by streaming the xstd::bit_set<N> elements and size through an overloaded hash_append function.

3 Set predicates from `boost::dynamic_bitset`

The set predicates is_subset, is_proper_subset and intersects from boost::dynamic_bitset are present in xstd::bit_set with identical syntax and identical semantics. Note that these set predicates are not present in std::bitset. Efficient emulation of these set predicates for std::bitset is not possible using single-pass and short-circuiting semantics.

`xstd::bit_set<N>` `boost::dynamic_bitset<>`	`std::bitset<N>`
`a.is_subset_of(b)`	`(a & ~b).none()`
`a.is_proper_subset_of(b)`	`(a & ~b).none() && a != b`
`a.intersects(b)`	`(a & b).any()`

4 The bitwise operators from `std::bitset` and `boost::dynamic_bitset` reimagined as set algorithms

The bitwise operators (&=, |=, ^=, -=, ~, &, |, ^, -) from std::bitset and boost::dynamic_bitset are present in xstd::bit_set with identical syntax and identical semantics. Note that the bitwise difference operators (-= and -) from boost::dynamic_bitset are not present in std::bitset. The operator- can be emulated for std::bitset using the identity a - b == a & ~b.

The bitwise-shift operators (<<=, >>=, <<, >>) from std::bitset and boost::dynamic_bitset are present in xstd::bit_set with identical syntax, but with the semantic difference that xstd::bit_set<N> does not support bit-shifting for lengths >= N. Instead of calling clear() for argument values outside the range [0, N), this behavior is undefined. Note that these semantics for xstd::bit_set<N> are identical to bit-shifting on native unsigned integers. This gives xstd::bit_set<N> a small performance benefit over std::bitset<N>.

With the exception of operator~, the non-member bitwise operators can be reimagined as composable and data-parallel versions of the set algorithms on sorted ranges. In C++23, the set algorithms are not (yet) composable, but the range-v3 library contains lazy views for them.

`xstd::bit_set<N>`	`std::set<int>` with the range-v3 set algorithm views
`a.is_subset_of(b)`	`std::ranges::includes(a, b)`
`a \| b`	`ranges::views::set_union(a, b) \| std::ranges::to<std::set>()`
`a & b`	`ranges::views::set_intersection(a, b) \| std::ranges::to<std::set>()`
`a - b`	`ranges::views::set_difference(a, b) \| std::ranges::to<std::set>()`
`a ^ b`	`ranges::views::set_symmetric_difference(a, b) \| std::ranges::to<std::set>()`

The bitwise shift operators of xstd::bit_set<N> can be reimagined as set transformations that add or subtract a non-negative constant to all set elements, followed by filtering out elements that would fall outside the range [0, N). This can also be formulated in a composable way for std::set<int>, albeit without the data-parallelism that xstd::bit_set<N> provides.

xstd::bit_set<N>

std::set<int>

auto b = a << n;

auto b = a
    | std::views::transform([=](auto x) { return x + n; })
    | std::views::filter   ([=](auto x) { return x < N; })
    | std::ranges::to<std::set>()
;

auto b = a >> n;

auto b = a
    | std::views::transform([=](auto x) { return x - n;  })
    | std::views::filter   ([=](auto x) { return 0 <= x; })
    | std::ranges::to<std::set>()
;

Frequently Asked Questions

Iterators

Q: How can you iterate over individual bits? I thought a byte was the unit of addressing? A: Using proxy iterators, which hold a pointer and an offset.

Q: What happens if you dereference a proxy iterator? A: You get a proxy reference: ref == *it.

Q: What happens if you take the address of a proxy reference? A: You get a proxy iterator: it == &ref.

Q: How do you get any value out of a proxy reference? A: They implicitly convert to int.

Q: How can proxy references work if C++ does not allow overloading of operator.? A: Indeed, proxy references break the equivalence between functions calls like ref.mem_fn() and it->mem_fn().

Q: How do you work around this? A: int is not a class-type and does not have member functions, so this situation never occurs.

Q: Aren't there too many implicit conversions when assigning a proxy reference to an implicitly int-constructible class? A: No, proxy references also implicity convert to any class type that is implicitly constructible from an int.

Q: So iterating over an xstd::bit_set is really fool-proof? A: Yes, xstd::bit_set iterators are easy to use correctly and hard to use incorrectly.

Bit-layout

Q: How is xstd::bit_set implemented? A: It uses a stack-allocated array of unsigned integers as bit storage.

Q: How is the set ordering mapped to the array's bit layout? A: The most significant bit of the first array word maps onto set value 0. A: The least significant bit of the last array word maps onto set value N - 1.

Q: I'm visually oriented, can you draw a diagram? A: Sure, it looks like this for bit_set<16, uint8_t>:

value	01234567	89ABCDEF
word	0	1
offset	76543210	76543210

Q: Why is the set order mapped this way onto the array's bit-layout? A: To be able to use data-parallelism for (a < b) == std::ranges::lexicographical_compare(a, b).

Q: How is efficient set comparison connected to the bit-ordering within words? A: Take bit_set<8, uint8_t> and consider when sL < sR for ordered sets of integers sL and sR.

Q: Ah, lexicographical set comparison corresponds to bit comparison from most to least significant. A: Indeed, and this is equivalent to doing the integer comparison wL > wR on the underlying words wL and wR.

Q: So the set ordering a bit_set is equivalent to its representation as a bitstring? A: Yes, indeed, and this property has been known for several decades:

"bit-0 is the leftmost, just like char-0 is the leftmost in character strings. [...] This makes converting from and to unsigned integers a little counter-intuitive, but the string-ness (or "array-ness") is the foundation of this abstraction.

Chuck Allison, ISO/WG21/N0128, May 26, 1992

Storage type

Q: What storage type does xstd::bit_set use? A: By default, xstd::bit_set uses an array of std::size_t integers.

Q: Can I customize the storage type? A: Yes, the full class template signature is template<int N, std::unsigned_integral Block = std::size_t> xstd::bit_set.

Q: What other storage types can be used as template argument for Block? A: Any type modelling the Standard Library unsigned_integral concept, which includes (for GCC and Clang) the non-Standard __uint128_t.

Q: Does the xstd::bit_set implementation optimize for the case of a small number of words of storage? A: Yes, there are three special cases for 0, 1 and 2 words of storage, as well as the general case of 3 or more words.

Requirements

This single-header library has no other dependencies than the C++ Standard Library and is continuously being tested with the following conforming C++23 compilers:

Platform	Compiler	Versions	Build
Linux	GCC	$\geq$ 14	CI currently being ported to GitHub Actions
Linux	Clang	$\geq$ 18	CI currently being ported to GitHub Actions
Windows	Visual C++	$\geq$ 17.10	CI currently being ported to GitHub Actions

Note that the benchmarks and unit tests depend on Boost, fmtlib, Google Benchmark and range-v3.

License

Copyright Rein Halbersma 2014-2024. Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt)

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README.md

README.md

Rebooting the `std::bitset` franchise

Design choices for a `bitset` data structure

The current `bit` landscape

A reimagined `bit` landscape

Hello World: generating (twin) primes

Requirements for `set`-like behaviour

Retrofitting `set`-like behaviour onto `std::bitset<N>` and `boost::dynamic_bitset<>`

Data-parallelism

Sequence of bits

Documentation

1 An almost drop-in replacement for `std::set<int>`

2 An almost complete translation of `std::bitset<N>`

3 Set predicates from `boost::dynamic_bitset`

4 The bitwise operators from `std::bitset` and `boost::dynamic_bitset` reimagined as set algorithms

Frequently Asked Questions

Iterators

Bit-layout

Storage type

Requirements

License

Files

README.md

Latest commit

History

README.md

File metadata and controls

Rebooting the std::bitset franchise

Design choices for a bitset data structure

The current bit landscape

A reimagined bit landscape

Hello World: generating (twin) primes

Requirements for set-like behaviour

Retrofitting set-like behaviour onto std::bitset<N> and boost::dynamic_bitset<>

Data-parallelism

Sequence of bits

Documentation

1 An almost drop-in replacement for std::set<int>

2 An almost complete translation of std::bitset<N>

3 Set predicates from boost::dynamic_bitset

4 The bitwise operators from std::bitset and boost::dynamic_bitset reimagined as set algorithms

Frequently Asked Questions

Iterators

Bit-layout

Storage type

Requirements

License

Rebooting the `std::bitset` franchise

Design choices for a `bitset` data structure

The current `bit` landscape

A reimagined `bit` landscape

Requirements for `set`-like behaviour

Retrofitting `set`-like behaviour onto `std::bitset<N>` and `boost::dynamic_bitset<>`

1 An almost drop-in replacement for `std::set<int>`

2 An almost complete translation of `std::bitset<N>`

3 Set predicates from `boost::dynamic_bitset`

4 The bitwise operators from `std::bitset` and `boost::dynamic_bitset` reimagined as set algorithms