From 9af9725f4de03cc2727ecb64f31d8536bb8aef61 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Jacob Gadikian <jacobgadikian@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 26 Dec 2024 17:54:07 +0700
Subject: [PATCH] restore libwasmvm to ease reference

---
 ibc_test.go                            |   14 +-
 internal/api/mocks.go                  |    4 +-
 internal/api/testdb/memdb_iterator.go  |    6 +
 internal/runtime/hostfunctions.go      |   35 +-
 libwasmvm/.gitignore                   |    3 +
 libwasmvm/Cargo.lock                   | 2489 ++++++++++++++++++++++++
 libwasmvm/Cargo.toml                   |   63 +
 libwasmvm/artifacts/.gitkeep           |    0
 libwasmvm/bindings.h                   |  645 ++++++
 libwasmvm/build.rs                     |    9 +
 libwasmvm/cbindgen.toml                |  146 ++
 libwasmvm/clippy.toml                  |    1 +
 libwasmvm/src/api.rs                   |  159 ++
 libwasmvm/src/args.rs                  |    9 +
 libwasmvm/src/cache.rs                 | 1078 ++++++++++
 libwasmvm/src/calls.rs                 |  680 +++++++
 libwasmvm/src/db.rs                    |   70 +
 libwasmvm/src/error/go.rs              |  191 ++
 libwasmvm/src/error/mod.rs             |    7 +
 libwasmvm/src/error/rust.rs            |  585 ++++++
 libwasmvm/src/examples/wasmvmstatic.rs |    5 +
 libwasmvm/src/gas_meter.rs             |    5 +
 libwasmvm/src/gas_report.rs            |   31 +
 libwasmvm/src/handle_vm_panic.rs       |   34 +
 libwasmvm/src/iterator.rs              |  203 ++
 libwasmvm/src/lib.rs                   |   36 +
 libwasmvm/src/memory.rs                |  470 +++++
 libwasmvm/src/querier.rs               |   92 +
 libwasmvm/src/storage.rs               |  211 ++
 libwasmvm/src/test_utils.rs            |  100 +
 libwasmvm/src/tests.rs                 |   83 +
 libwasmvm/src/version.rs               |   56 +
 libwasmvm/src/vtables.rs               |   46 +
 33 files changed, 7557 insertions(+), 9 deletions(-)
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/.gitignore
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/Cargo.lock
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/Cargo.toml
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/artifacts/.gitkeep
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/bindings.h
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/build.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/cbindgen.toml
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/clippy.toml
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/api.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/args.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/cache.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/calls.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/db.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/error/go.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/error/mod.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/error/rust.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/examples/wasmvmstatic.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/gas_meter.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/gas_report.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/handle_vm_panic.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/iterator.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/lib.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/memory.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/querier.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/storage.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/test_utils.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/tests.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/version.rs
 create mode 100644 libwasmvm/src/vtables.rs

diff --git a/ibc_test.go b/ibc_test.go
index bfdcc0503..2da754d14 100644
--- a/ibc_test.go
+++ b/ibc_test.go
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+//go:build cgo && !nolink_libwasmvm
+
 package cosmwasm
 
 import (
@@ -74,7 +76,6 @@ type AcknowledgeDispatch struct {
 }
 
 func toBytes(t *testing.T, v interface{}) []byte {
-	t.Helper()
 	bz, err := json.Marshal(v)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	return bz
@@ -106,10 +107,9 @@ func TestIBCHandshake(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 	i, _, err := vm.Instantiate(checksum, env, info, toBytes(t, init_msg), store, *goapi, querier, gasMeter1, TESTING_GAS_LIMIT, deserCost)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
-	t.Logf("Instantiation response: %+v", i)
 	assert.NotNil(t, i.Ok)
 	iResponse := i.Ok
-	require.Empty(t, iResponse.Messages)
+	require.Equal(t, 0, len(iResponse.Messages))
 
 	// channel open
 	gasMeter2 := api.NewMockGasMeter(TESTING_GAS_LIMIT)
@@ -132,7 +132,7 @@ func TestIBCHandshake(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	require.NotNil(t, conn.Ok)
 	connResponse := conn.Ok
-	require.Len(t, connResponse.Messages, 1)
+	require.Equal(t, 1, len(connResponse.Messages))
 
 	// check for the expected custom event
 	expected_events := []types.Event{{
@@ -200,7 +200,7 @@ func TestIBCPacketDispatch(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	require.NotNil(t, conn.Ok)
 	connResponse := conn.Ok
-	require.Len(t, connResponse.Messages, 1)
+	require.Equal(t, 1, len(connResponse.Messages))
 	id := connResponse.Messages[0].ID
 
 	// mock reflect init callback (to store address)
@@ -237,7 +237,7 @@ func TestIBCPacketDispatch(t *testing.T) {
 	var accounts ListAccountsResponse
 	err = json.Unmarshal(qResponse, &accounts)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
-	require.Len(t, accounts.Accounts, 1)
+	require.Equal(t, 1, len(accounts.Accounts))
 	require.Equal(t, CHANNEL_ID, accounts.Accounts[0].ChannelID)
 	require.Equal(t, REFLECT_ADDR, accounts.Accounts[0].Account)
 
@@ -332,7 +332,7 @@ func TestIBCMsgGetChannel(t *testing.T) {
 	require.Equal(t, msg1.GetChannel(), msg4.GetChannel())
 	require.Equal(t, msg1.GetChannel(), msg5.GetChannel())
 	require.Equal(t, msg1.GetChannel(), msg6.GetChannel())
-	require.Equal(t, CHANNEL_ID, msg1.GetChannel().Endpoint.ChannelID)
+	require.Equal(t, msg1.GetChannel().Endpoint.ChannelID, CHANNEL_ID)
 }
 
 func TestIBCMsgGetCounterVersion(t *testing.T) {
diff --git a/internal/api/mocks.go b/internal/api/mocks.go
index c33ee06d0..3ec68bf17 100644
--- a/internal/api/mocks.go
+++ b/internal/api/mocks.go
@@ -19,11 +19,13 @@ import (
 
 const MOCK_CONTRACT_ADDR = "contract"
 
+// MockEnv returns a mock environment for testing
+// this is the original, and should not be changed.
 func MockEnv() types.Env {
 	return types.Env{
 		Block: types.BlockInfo{
 			Height:  123,
-			Time:    types.Uint64(1578939743_987654321),
+			Time:    1578939743_987654321,
 			ChainID: "foobar",
 		},
 		Transaction: &types.TransactionInfo{
diff --git a/internal/api/testdb/memdb_iterator.go b/internal/api/testdb/memdb_iterator.go
index a65efa281..7d4d8a90e 100644
--- a/internal/api/testdb/memdb_iterator.go
+++ b/internal/api/testdb/memdb_iterator.go
@@ -141,12 +141,18 @@ func (i *memDBIterator) Error() error {
 // Key implements Iterator.
 func (i *memDBIterator) Key() []byte {
 	i.assertIsValid()
+	if i.item.key == nil || len(i.item.key) == 0 {
+		return nil
+	}
 	return i.item.key
 }
 
 // Value implements Iterator.
 func (i *memDBIterator) Value() []byte {
 	i.assertIsValid()
+	if i.item.value == nil || len(i.item.value) == 0 {
+		return nil
+	}
 	return i.item.value
 }
 
diff --git a/internal/runtime/hostfunctions.go b/internal/runtime/hostfunctions.go
index 6596b8a6f..69efd38e2 100644
--- a/internal/runtime/hostfunctions.go
+++ b/internal/runtime/hostfunctions.go
@@ -431,7 +431,40 @@ func hostCloseIterator(ctx context.Context, mod api.Module, callID, iterID uint6
 
 // hostAbort implements the abort function required by Wasm modules
 func hostAbort(ctx context.Context, mod api.Module, code uint32) {
-	panic(fmt.Sprintf("Wasm contract aborted with code: %d", code))
+	// Print debug information about the abort
+	fmt.Printf("Debug: Wasm contract abort triggered\n")
+	fmt.Printf("Debug: Abort code: %d (0x%x)\n", code, code)
+
+	// Try to get any memory exports to check for error messages
+	if mem := mod.Memory(); mem != nil {
+		// Try to read memory around the abort code location
+		// We'll read a few different ranges to try to catch any error message
+		ranges := []struct{ start, size uint32 }{
+			{code - 100, 200},    // Around the code point
+			{0, 256},             // Start of memory
+			{code & 0xFFFF, 256}, // Lower 16 bits as offset
+		}
+
+		for _, r := range ranges {
+			if data, ok := mem.Read(r.start, r.size); ok {
+				if len(data) > 0 {
+					// Try to interpret the memory as both string and raw bytes
+					fmt.Printf("Debug: Memory at offset %d:\n", r.start)
+					fmt.Printf("  As string: %s\n", string(data))
+					fmt.Printf("  As bytes: %v\n", data)
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	env := ctx.Value(envKey).(*RuntimeEnvironment)
+	if env != nil {
+		fmt.Printf("Debug: Runtime environment state:\n")
+		fmt.Printf("  Gas used: %d\n", env.GasUsed)
+		fmt.Printf("  Gas limit: %d\n", env.Gas.GasConsumed())
+	}
+
+	panic(fmt.Sprintf("Wasm contract aborted with code: %d (0x%x)", code, code))
 }
 
 // hostDbRead implements db_read
diff --git a/libwasmvm/.gitignore b/libwasmvm/.gitignore
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..1f2eb5641
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/.gitignore
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+# Build results
+target/
+artifacts/
diff --git a/libwasmvm/Cargo.lock b/libwasmvm/Cargo.lock
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..4cb79f72a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/Cargo.lock
@@ -0,0 +1,2489 @@
+# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo.
+# It is not intended for manual editing.
+version = 3
+
+[[package]]
+name = "addr2line"
+version = "0.21.0"
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+dependencies = [
+ "gimli 0.28.1",
+]
+
+[[package]]
+name = "adler"
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+ "once_cell",
+ "version_check",
+]
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+ "zerocopy",
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+ "anstyle",
+ "anstyle-parse",
+ "anstyle-query",
+ "anstyle-wincon",
+ "colorchoice",
+ "is_terminal_polyfill",
+ "utf8parse",
+]
+
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+ "rayon",
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+ "zeroize",
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diff --git a/libwasmvm/Cargo.toml b/libwasmvm/Cargo.toml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..908942f28
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+[package]
+name = "wasmvm"
+version = "2.2.1"
+publish = false
+authors = ["Ethan Frey <ethanfrey@users.noreply.github.com>"]
+edition = "2021"
+description = "Go bindings for cosmwasm contracts"
+repository = "https://github.com/CosmWasm/wasmvm"
+license = "Apache-2.0"
+readme = "README.md"
+exclude = [".circleci/*", ".gitignore"]
+
+[lib]
+crate-type = ["cdylib", "rlib"]
+
+# the example is to allow us to compile a muslc static lib with the same codebase as we compile the
+# normal dynamic libs (best workaround I could find to override crate-type on the command line)
+[[example]]
+name = "wasmvmstatic"
+path = "src/examples/wasmvmstatic.rs"
+crate-type = ["staticlib"]
+
+[features]
+default = []
+# This feature requires Rust nightly because it depends on the unstable backtrace feature.
+backtraces = []
+
+[dependencies]
+cosmwasm-std = { git = "https://github.com/CosmWasm/cosmwasm.git", rev = "v2.2.0", features = [
+  "staking",
+  "stargate",
+  "iterator",
+] }
+cosmwasm-vm = { git = "https://github.com/CosmWasm/cosmwasm.git", rev = "v2.2.0", features = [
+  "staking",
+  "stargate",
+  "iterator",
+] }
+errno = "0.3.8"
+rmp-serde = "1.3.0"
+serde = { version = "1.0.103", features = ["derive"] }
+serde_json = "1.0.91"
+thiserror = "1.0.38"
+hex = "0.4.3"
+time = { version = "0.3.36", features = ["formatting"] }
+
+[dev-dependencies]
+serde = { version = "1.0.103", default-features = false, features = ["derive"] }
+tempfile = "3.4.0"
+
+[build-dependencies]
+cbindgen = "0.27.0"
+
+[profile.release]
+opt-level = 3
+debug = false
+rpath = true
+lto = false
+debug-assertions = false
+codegen-units = 16
+panic = 'unwind'
+incremental = true
+overflow-checks = true
diff --git a/libwasmvm/artifacts/.gitkeep b/libwasmvm/artifacts/.gitkeep
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..e69de29bb
diff --git a/libwasmvm/bindings.h b/libwasmvm/bindings.h
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..1f356a7fc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/bindings.h
@@ -0,0 +1,645 @@
+/* Licensed under Apache-2.0. Copyright see https://github.com/CosmWasm/wasmvm/blob/main/NOTICE. */
+
+/* Generated with cbindgen:0.27.0 */
+
+/* Warning, this file is autogenerated by cbindgen. Don't modify this manually. */
+
+#include <stdarg.h>
+#include <stdbool.h>
+#include <stdint.h>
+#include <stdlib.h>
+
+enum ErrnoValue {
+  ErrnoValue_Success = 0,
+  ErrnoValue_Other = 1,
+  ErrnoValue_OutOfGas = 2,
+};
+typedef int32_t ErrnoValue;
+
+/**
+ * This enum gives names to the status codes returned from Go callbacks to Rust.
+ * The Go code will return one of these variants when returning.
+ *
+ * 0 means no error, all the other cases are some sort of error.
+ *
+ */
+enum GoError {
+  GoError_None = 0,
+  /**
+   * Go panicked for an unexpected reason.
+   */
+  GoError_Panic = 1,
+  /**
+   * Go received a bad argument from Rust
+   */
+  GoError_BadArgument = 2,
+  /**
+   * Ran out of gas while using the SDK (e.g. storage). This can come from the Cosmos SDK gas meter
+   * (https://github.com/cosmos/cosmos-sdk/blob/v0.45.4/store/types/gas.go#L29-L32).
+   */
+  GoError_OutOfGas = 3,
+  /**
+   * Error while trying to serialize data in Go code (typically json.Marshal)
+   */
+  GoError_CannotSerialize = 4,
+  /**
+   * An error happened during normal operation of a Go callback, which should be fed back to the contract
+   */
+  GoError_User = 5,
+  /**
+   * An error type that should never be created by us. It only serves as a fallback for the i32 to GoError conversion.
+   */
+  GoError_Other = -1,
+};
+typedef int32_t GoError;
+
+typedef struct cache_t {
+
+} cache_t;
+
+/**
+ * A view into an externally owned byte slice (Go `[]byte`).
+ * Use this for the current call only. A view cannot be copied for safety reasons.
+ * If you need a copy, use [`ByteSliceView::to_owned`].
+ *
+ * Go's nil value is fully supported, such that we can differentiate between nil and an empty slice.
+ */
+typedef struct ByteSliceView {
+  /**
+   * True if and only if the byte slice is nil in Go. If this is true, the other fields must be ignored.
+   */
+  bool is_nil;
+  const uint8_t *ptr;
+  uintptr_t len;
+} ByteSliceView;
+
+/**
+ * An optional Vector type that requires explicit creation and destruction
+ * and can be sent via FFI.
+ * It can be created from `Option<Vec<u8>>` and be converted into `Option<Vec<u8>>`.
+ *
+ * This type is always created in Rust and always dropped in Rust.
+ * If Go code want to create it, it must instruct Rust to do so via the
+ * [`new_unmanaged_vector`] FFI export. If Go code wants to consume its data,
+ * it must create a copy and instruct Rust to destroy it via the
+ * [`destroy_unmanaged_vector`] FFI export.
+ *
+ * An UnmanagedVector is immutable.
+ *
+ * ## Ownership
+ *
+ * Ownership is the right and the obligation to destroy an `UnmanagedVector`
+ * exactly once. Both Rust and Go can create an `UnmanagedVector`, which gives
+ * then ownership. Sometimes it is necessary to transfer ownership.
+ *
+ * ### Transfer ownership from Rust to Go
+ *
+ * When an `UnmanagedVector` was created in Rust using [`UnmanagedVector::new`], [`UnmanagedVector::default`]
+ * or [`new_unmanaged_vector`], it can be passed to Go as a return value (see e.g. [load_wasm][crate::load_wasm]).
+ * Rust then has no chance to destroy the vector anymore, so ownership is transferred to Go.
+ * In Go, the data has to be copied to a garbage collected `[]byte`. Then the vector must be destroyed
+ * using [`destroy_unmanaged_vector`].
+ *
+ * ### Transfer ownership from Go to Rust
+ *
+ * When Rust code calls into Go (using the vtable methods), return data or error messages must be created
+ * in Go. This is done by calling [`new_unmanaged_vector`] from Go, which copies data into a newly created
+ * `UnmanagedVector`. Since Go created it, it owns it. The ownership is then passed to Rust via the
+ * mutable return value pointers. On the Rust side, the vector is destroyed using [`UnmanagedVector::consume`].
+ *
+ * ## Examples
+ *
+ * Transferring ownership from Rust to Go using return values of FFI calls:
+ *
+ * ```
+ * # use wasmvm::{cache_t, ByteSliceView, UnmanagedVector};
+ * #[no_mangle]
+ * pub extern "C" fn save_wasm_to_cache(
+ *     cache: *mut cache_t,
+ *     wasm: ByteSliceView,
+ *     error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+ * ) -> UnmanagedVector {
+ *     # let checksum: Vec<u8> = Default::default();
+ *     // some operation producing a `let checksum: Vec<u8>`
+ *
+ *     UnmanagedVector::new(Some(checksum)) // this unmanaged vector is owned by the caller
+ * }
+ * ```
+ *
+ * Transferring ownership from Go to Rust using return value pointers:
+ *
+ * ```rust
+ * # use cosmwasm_vm::{BackendResult, GasInfo};
+ * # use wasmvm::{Db, GoError, U8SliceView, UnmanagedVector};
+ * fn db_read(db: &Db, key: &[u8]) -> BackendResult<Option<Vec<u8>>> {
+ *
+ *     // Create a None vector in order to reserve memory for the result
+ *     let mut output = UnmanagedVector::default();
+ *
+ *     // …
+ *     # let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+ *     # let mut used_gas = 0_u64;
+ *     # let read_db = db.vtable.read_db.unwrap();
+ *
+ *     let go_error: GoError = read_db(
+ *         db.state,
+ *         db.gas_meter,
+ *         &mut used_gas as *mut u64,
+ *         U8SliceView::new(Some(key)),
+ *         // Go will create a new UnmanagedVector and override this address
+ *         &mut output as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+ *         &mut error_msg as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+ *     )
+ *     .into();
+ *
+ *     // We now own the new UnmanagedVector written to the pointer and must destroy it
+ *     let value = output.consume();
+ *
+ *     // Some gas processing and error handling
+ *     # let gas_info = GasInfo::free();
+ *
+ *     (Ok(value), gas_info)
+ * }
+ * ```
+ *
+ *
+ * If you want to mutate data, you need to consume the vector and create a new one:
+ *
+ * ```rust
+ * # use wasmvm::{UnmanagedVector};
+ * # let input = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(vec![0xAA]));
+ * let mut mutable: Vec<u8> = input.consume().unwrap_or_default();
+ * assert_eq!(mutable, vec![0xAA]);
+ *
+ * // `input` is now gone and we cam do everything we want to `mutable`,
+ * // including operations that reallocate the underlying data.
+ *
+ * mutable.push(0xBB);
+ * mutable.push(0xCC);
+ *
+ * assert_eq!(mutable, vec![0xAA, 0xBB, 0xCC]);
+ *
+ * let output = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(mutable));
+ *
+ * // `output` is ready to be passed around
+ * ```
+ */
+typedef struct UnmanagedVector {
+  /**
+   * True if and only if this is None. If this is true, the other fields must be ignored.
+   */
+  bool is_none;
+  uint8_t *ptr;
+  uintptr_t len;
+  uintptr_t cap;
+} UnmanagedVector;
+
+/**
+ * A version of `Option<u64>` that can be used safely in FFI.
+ */
+typedef struct OptionalU64 {
+  bool is_some;
+  uint64_t value;
+} OptionalU64;
+
+/**
+ * The result type of the FFI function analyze_code.
+ *
+ * Please note that the unmanaged vector in `required_capabilities`
+ * has to be destroyed exactly once. When calling `analyze_code`
+ * from Go this is done via `C.destroy_unmanaged_vector`.
+ */
+typedef struct AnalysisReport {
+  /**
+   * `true` if and only if all required ibc exports exist as exported functions.
+   * This does not guarantee they are functional or even have the correct signatures.
+   */
+  bool has_ibc_entry_points;
+  /**
+   * A UTF-8 encoded comma separated list of all entrypoints that
+   * are exported by the contract.
+   */
+  struct UnmanagedVector entrypoints;
+  /**
+   * An UTF-8 encoded comma separated list of required capabilities.
+   * This is never None/nil.
+   */
+  struct UnmanagedVector required_capabilities;
+  /**
+   * The migrate version of the contract.
+   * This is None if the contract does not have a migrate version and the `migrate` entrypoint
+   * needs to be called for every migration (if present).
+   * If it is `Some(version)`, it only needs to be called if the `version` increased.
+   */
+  struct OptionalU64 contract_migrate_version;
+} AnalysisReport;
+
+typedef struct Metrics {
+  uint32_t hits_pinned_memory_cache;
+  uint32_t hits_memory_cache;
+  uint32_t hits_fs_cache;
+  uint32_t misses;
+  uint64_t elements_pinned_memory_cache;
+  uint64_t elements_memory_cache;
+  uint64_t size_pinned_memory_cache;
+  uint64_t size_memory_cache;
+} Metrics;
+
+/**
+ * An opaque type. `*gas_meter_t` represents a pointer to Go memory holding the gas meter.
+ */
+typedef struct gas_meter_t {
+  uint8_t _private[0];
+} gas_meter_t;
+
+typedef struct db_t {
+  uint8_t _private[0];
+} db_t;
+
+/**
+ * A view into a `Option<&[u8]>`, created and maintained by Rust.
+ *
+ * This can be copied into a []byte in Go.
+ */
+typedef struct U8SliceView {
+  /**
+   * True if and only if this is None. If this is true, the other fields must be ignored.
+   */
+  bool is_none;
+  const uint8_t *ptr;
+  uintptr_t len;
+} U8SliceView;
+
+/**
+ * A reference to some tables on the Go side which allow accessing
+ * the actual iterator instance.
+ */
+typedef struct IteratorReference {
+  /**
+   * An ID assigned to this contract call
+   */
+  uint64_t call_id;
+  /**
+   * An ID assigned to this iterator
+   */
+  uint64_t iterator_id;
+} IteratorReference;
+
+typedef struct IteratorVtable {
+  int32_t (*next)(struct IteratorReference iterator,
+                  struct gas_meter_t *gas_meter,
+                  uint64_t *gas_used,
+                  struct UnmanagedVector *key_out,
+                  struct UnmanagedVector *value_out,
+                  struct UnmanagedVector *err_msg_out);
+  int32_t (*next_key)(struct IteratorReference iterator,
+                      struct gas_meter_t *gas_meter,
+                      uint64_t *gas_used,
+                      struct UnmanagedVector *key_out,
+                      struct UnmanagedVector *err_msg_out);
+  int32_t (*next_value)(struct IteratorReference iterator,
+                        struct gas_meter_t *gas_meter,
+                        uint64_t *gas_used,
+                        struct UnmanagedVector *value_out,
+                        struct UnmanagedVector *err_msg_out);
+} IteratorVtable;
+
+typedef struct GoIter {
+  struct gas_meter_t *gas_meter;
+  /**
+   * A reference which identifies the iterator and allows finding and accessing the
+   * actual iterator instance in Go. Once fully initialized, this is immutable.
+   */
+  struct IteratorReference reference;
+  struct IteratorVtable vtable;
+} GoIter;
+
+typedef struct DbVtable {
+  int32_t (*read_db)(struct db_t *db,
+                     struct gas_meter_t *gas_meter,
+                     uint64_t *gas_used,
+                     struct U8SliceView key,
+                     struct UnmanagedVector *value_out,
+                     struct UnmanagedVector *err_msg_out);
+  int32_t (*write_db)(struct db_t *db,
+                      struct gas_meter_t *gas_meter,
+                      uint64_t *gas_used,
+                      struct U8SliceView key,
+                      struct U8SliceView value,
+                      struct UnmanagedVector *err_msg_out);
+  int32_t (*remove_db)(struct db_t *db,
+                       struct gas_meter_t *gas_meter,
+                       uint64_t *gas_used,
+                       struct U8SliceView key,
+                       struct UnmanagedVector *err_msg_out);
+  int32_t (*scan_db)(struct db_t *db,
+                     struct gas_meter_t *gas_meter,
+                     uint64_t *gas_used,
+                     struct U8SliceView start,
+                     struct U8SliceView end,
+                     int32_t order,
+                     struct GoIter *iterator_out,
+                     struct UnmanagedVector *err_msg_out);
+} DbVtable;
+
+typedef struct Db {
+  struct gas_meter_t *gas_meter;
+  struct db_t *state;
+  struct DbVtable vtable;
+} Db;
+
+typedef struct api_t {
+  uint8_t _private[0];
+} api_t;
+
+typedef struct GoApiVtable {
+  int32_t (*humanize_address)(const struct api_t *api,
+                              struct U8SliceView input,
+                              struct UnmanagedVector *humanized_address_out,
+                              struct UnmanagedVector *err_msg_out,
+                              uint64_t *gas_used);
+  int32_t (*canonicalize_address)(const struct api_t *api,
+                                  struct U8SliceView input,
+                                  struct UnmanagedVector *canonicalized_address_out,
+                                  struct UnmanagedVector *err_msg_out,
+                                  uint64_t *gas_used);
+  int32_t (*validate_address)(const struct api_t *api,
+                              struct U8SliceView input,
+                              struct UnmanagedVector *err_msg_out,
+                              uint64_t *gas_used);
+} GoApiVtable;
+
+typedef struct GoApi {
+  const struct api_t *state;
+  struct GoApiVtable vtable;
+} GoApi;
+
+typedef struct querier_t {
+  uint8_t _private[0];
+} querier_t;
+
+typedef struct QuerierVtable {
+  int32_t (*query_external)(const struct querier_t *querier,
+                            uint64_t gas_limit,
+                            uint64_t *gas_used,
+                            struct U8SliceView request,
+                            struct UnmanagedVector *result_out,
+                            struct UnmanagedVector *err_msg_out);
+} QuerierVtable;
+
+typedef struct GoQuerier {
+  const struct querier_t *state;
+  struct QuerierVtable vtable;
+} GoQuerier;
+
+typedef struct GasReport {
+  /**
+   * The original limit the instance was created with
+   */
+  uint64_t limit;
+  /**
+   * The remaining gas that can be spend
+   */
+  uint64_t remaining;
+  /**
+   * The amount of gas that was spend and metered externally in operations triggered by this instance
+   */
+  uint64_t used_externally;
+  /**
+   * The amount of gas that was spend and metered internally (i.e. by executing Wasm and calling
+   * API methods which are not metered externally)
+   */
+  uint64_t used_internally;
+} GasReport;
+
+struct cache_t *init_cache(struct ByteSliceView config, struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector store_code(struct cache_t *cache,
+                                  struct ByteSliceView wasm,
+                                  bool checked,
+                                  bool persist,
+                                  struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+void remove_wasm(struct cache_t *cache,
+                 struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                 struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector load_wasm(struct cache_t *cache,
+                                 struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                                 struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+void pin(struct cache_t *cache, struct ByteSliceView checksum, struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+void unpin(struct cache_t *cache, struct ByteSliceView checksum, struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct AnalysisReport analyze_code(struct cache_t *cache,
+                                   struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                                   struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct Metrics get_metrics(struct cache_t *cache, struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector get_pinned_metrics(struct cache_t *cache, struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+/**
+ * frees a cache reference
+ *
+ * # Safety
+ *
+ * This must be called exactly once for any `*cache_t` returned by `init_cache`
+ * and cannot be called on any other pointer.
+ */
+void release_cache(struct cache_t *cache);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector instantiate(struct cache_t *cache,
+                                   struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                                   struct ByteSliceView env,
+                                   struct ByteSliceView info,
+                                   struct ByteSliceView msg,
+                                   struct Db db,
+                                   struct GoApi api,
+                                   struct GoQuerier querier,
+                                   uint64_t gas_limit,
+                                   bool print_debug,
+                                   struct GasReport *gas_report,
+                                   struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector execute(struct cache_t *cache,
+                               struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                               struct ByteSliceView env,
+                               struct ByteSliceView info,
+                               struct ByteSliceView msg,
+                               struct Db db,
+                               struct GoApi api,
+                               struct GoQuerier querier,
+                               uint64_t gas_limit,
+                               bool print_debug,
+                               struct GasReport *gas_report,
+                               struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector migrate(struct cache_t *cache,
+                               struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                               struct ByteSliceView env,
+                               struct ByteSliceView msg,
+                               struct Db db,
+                               struct GoApi api,
+                               struct GoQuerier querier,
+                               uint64_t gas_limit,
+                               bool print_debug,
+                               struct GasReport *gas_report,
+                               struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector migrate_with_info(struct cache_t *cache,
+                                         struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                                         struct ByteSliceView env,
+                                         struct ByteSliceView msg,
+                                         struct ByteSliceView migrate_info,
+                                         struct Db db,
+                                         struct GoApi api,
+                                         struct GoQuerier querier,
+                                         uint64_t gas_limit,
+                                         bool print_debug,
+                                         struct GasReport *gas_report,
+                                         struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector sudo(struct cache_t *cache,
+                            struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                            struct ByteSliceView env,
+                            struct ByteSliceView msg,
+                            struct Db db,
+                            struct GoApi api,
+                            struct GoQuerier querier,
+                            uint64_t gas_limit,
+                            bool print_debug,
+                            struct GasReport *gas_report,
+                            struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector reply(struct cache_t *cache,
+                             struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                             struct ByteSliceView env,
+                             struct ByteSliceView msg,
+                             struct Db db,
+                             struct GoApi api,
+                             struct GoQuerier querier,
+                             uint64_t gas_limit,
+                             bool print_debug,
+                             struct GasReport *gas_report,
+                             struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector query(struct cache_t *cache,
+                             struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                             struct ByteSliceView env,
+                             struct ByteSliceView msg,
+                             struct Db db,
+                             struct GoApi api,
+                             struct GoQuerier querier,
+                             uint64_t gas_limit,
+                             bool print_debug,
+                             struct GasReport *gas_report,
+                             struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector ibc_channel_open(struct cache_t *cache,
+                                        struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                                        struct ByteSliceView env,
+                                        struct ByteSliceView msg,
+                                        struct Db db,
+                                        struct GoApi api,
+                                        struct GoQuerier querier,
+                                        uint64_t gas_limit,
+                                        bool print_debug,
+                                        struct GasReport *gas_report,
+                                        struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector ibc_channel_connect(struct cache_t *cache,
+                                           struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                                           struct ByteSliceView env,
+                                           struct ByteSliceView msg,
+                                           struct Db db,
+                                           struct GoApi api,
+                                           struct GoQuerier querier,
+                                           uint64_t gas_limit,
+                                           bool print_debug,
+                                           struct GasReport *gas_report,
+                                           struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector ibc_channel_close(struct cache_t *cache,
+                                         struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                                         struct ByteSliceView env,
+                                         struct ByteSliceView msg,
+                                         struct Db db,
+                                         struct GoApi api,
+                                         struct GoQuerier querier,
+                                         uint64_t gas_limit,
+                                         bool print_debug,
+                                         struct GasReport *gas_report,
+                                         struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector ibc_packet_receive(struct cache_t *cache,
+                                          struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                                          struct ByteSliceView env,
+                                          struct ByteSliceView msg,
+                                          struct Db db,
+                                          struct GoApi api,
+                                          struct GoQuerier querier,
+                                          uint64_t gas_limit,
+                                          bool print_debug,
+                                          struct GasReport *gas_report,
+                                          struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector ibc_packet_ack(struct cache_t *cache,
+                                      struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                                      struct ByteSliceView env,
+                                      struct ByteSliceView msg,
+                                      struct Db db,
+                                      struct GoApi api,
+                                      struct GoQuerier querier,
+                                      uint64_t gas_limit,
+                                      bool print_debug,
+                                      struct GasReport *gas_report,
+                                      struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector ibc_packet_timeout(struct cache_t *cache,
+                                          struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                                          struct ByteSliceView env,
+                                          struct ByteSliceView msg,
+                                          struct Db db,
+                                          struct GoApi api,
+                                          struct GoQuerier querier,
+                                          uint64_t gas_limit,
+                                          bool print_debug,
+                                          struct GasReport *gas_report,
+                                          struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector ibc_source_callback(struct cache_t *cache,
+                                           struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                                           struct ByteSliceView env,
+                                           struct ByteSliceView msg,
+                                           struct Db db,
+                                           struct GoApi api,
+                                           struct GoQuerier querier,
+                                           uint64_t gas_limit,
+                                           bool print_debug,
+                                           struct GasReport *gas_report,
+                                           struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector ibc_destination_callback(struct cache_t *cache,
+                                                struct ByteSliceView checksum,
+                                                struct ByteSliceView env,
+                                                struct ByteSliceView msg,
+                                                struct Db db,
+                                                struct GoApi api,
+                                                struct GoQuerier querier,
+                                                uint64_t gas_limit,
+                                                bool print_debug,
+                                                struct GasReport *gas_report,
+                                                struct UnmanagedVector *error_msg);
+
+struct UnmanagedVector new_unmanaged_vector(bool nil, const uint8_t *ptr, uintptr_t length);
+
+void destroy_unmanaged_vector(struct UnmanagedVector v);
+
+/**
+ * Returns a version number of this library as a C string.
+ *
+ * The string is owned by libwasmvm and must not be mutated or destroyed by the caller.
+ */
+const char *version_str(void);
diff --git a/libwasmvm/build.rs b/libwasmvm/build.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..696e0e012
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/build.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+use std::env;
+
+fn main() {
+    let crate_dir = env::var("CARGO_MANIFEST_DIR").unwrap();
+
+    cbindgen::generate(crate_dir)
+        .expect("Unable to generate bindings")
+        .write_to_file("bindings.h");
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/cbindgen.toml b/libwasmvm/cbindgen.toml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..c10bd1245
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/cbindgen.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,146 @@
+# This is a template cbindgen.toml file with all of the default values.
+# Some values are commented out because their absence is the real default.
+#
+# See https://github.com/eqrion/cbindgen/blob/master/docs.md#cbindgentoml
+# for detailed documentation of every option here.
+
+
+
+language = "C"
+
+
+############## Options for Wrapping the Contents of the Header #################
+
+header = "/* Licensed under Apache-2.0. Copyright see https://github.com/CosmWasm/wasmvm/blob/main/NOTICE. */"
+# trailer = "/* Text to put at the end of the generated file */"
+# include_guard = "my_bindings_h"
+autogen_warning = "/* Warning, this file is autogenerated by cbindgen. Don't modify this manually. */"
+include_version = true
+# namespace = "my_namespace"
+namespaces = []
+sys_includes = []
+includes = []
+no_includes = false
+
+
+
+
+############################ Code Style Options ################################
+
+braces = "SameLine"
+line_length = 100
+tab_width = 2
+documentation_style = "auto"
+
+
+
+
+
+############################# Codegen Options ##################################
+
+style = "both"
+
+
+
+[defines]
+# "target_os = freebsd" = "DEFINE_FREEBSD"
+# "feature = serde" = "DEFINE_SERDE"
+
+
+
+[export]
+include = [
+    "GoError",
+    "ErrnoValue",
+]
+exclude = []
+# prefix = "CAPI_"
+item_types = []
+renaming_overrides_prefixing = false
+
+
+
+[export.rename]
+
+
+
+[export.body]
+
+
+
+
+[fn]
+rename_args = "None"
+# must_use = "MUST_USE_FUNC"
+# prefix = "START_FUNC"
+# postfix = "END_FUNC"
+args = "auto"
+
+
+
+
+[struct]
+rename_fields = "None"
+# must_use = "MUST_USE_STRUCT"
+derive_constructor = false
+derive_eq = false
+derive_neq = false
+derive_lt = false
+derive_lte = false
+derive_gt = false
+derive_gte = false
+
+
+
+
+[enum]
+rename_variants = "None"
+# must_use = "MUST_USE_ENUM"
+add_sentinel = false
+prefix_with_name = false
+derive_helper_methods = false
+derive_const_casts = false
+derive_mut_casts = false
+# cast_assert_name = "ASSERT"
+derive_tagged_enum_destructor = false
+derive_tagged_enum_copy_constructor = false
+private_default_tagged_enum_constructor = false
+
+
+
+
+[const]
+allow_static_const = true
+
+
+
+
+[macro_expansion]
+bitflags = false
+
+
+
+
+
+
+############## Options for How Your Rust library Should Be Parsed ##############
+
+[parse]
+parse_deps = false
+# include = []
+exclude = []
+clean = false
+extra_bindings = []
+
+
+
+[parse.expand]
+crates = []
+all_features = false
+default_features = true
+features = []
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/libwasmvm/clippy.toml b/libwasmvm/clippy.toml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..85355417c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/clippy.toml
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+too-many-arguments-threshold = 13
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/api.rs b/libwasmvm/src/api.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..a50a43f88
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/api.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,159 @@
+use cosmwasm_vm::{BackendApi, BackendError, BackendResult, GasInfo};
+
+use crate::error::GoError;
+use crate::memory::{U8SliceView, UnmanagedVector};
+use crate::Vtable;
+
+// this represents something passed in from the caller side of FFI
+// in this case a struct with go function pointers
+#[repr(C)]
+pub struct api_t {
+    _private: [u8; 0],
+}
+
+// These functions should return GoError but because we don't trust them here, we treat the return value as i32
+// and then check it when converting to GoError manually
+#[repr(C)]
+#[derive(Copy, Clone, Default)]
+pub struct GoApiVtable {
+    pub humanize_address: Option<
+        extern "C" fn(
+            api: *const api_t,
+            input: U8SliceView,
+            humanized_address_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            err_msg_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            gas_used: *mut u64,
+        ) -> i32,
+    >,
+    pub canonicalize_address: Option<
+        extern "C" fn(
+            api: *const api_t,
+            input: U8SliceView,
+            canonicalized_address_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            err_msg_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            gas_used: *mut u64,
+        ) -> i32,
+    >,
+    pub validate_address: Option<
+        extern "C" fn(
+            api: *const api_t,
+            input: U8SliceView,
+            err_msg_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            gas_used: *mut u64,
+        ) -> i32,
+    >,
+}
+
+impl Vtable for GoApiVtable {}
+
+#[repr(C)]
+#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
+pub struct GoApi {
+    pub state: *const api_t,
+    pub vtable: GoApiVtable,
+}
+
+// We must declare that these are safe to Send, to use in wasm.
+// The known go caller passes in immutable function pointers, but this is indeed
+// unsafe for possible other callers.
+//
+// see: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/50258359/can-a-struct-containing-a-raw-pointer-implement-send-and-be-ffi-safe
+unsafe impl Send for GoApi {}
+
+impl BackendApi for GoApi {
+    fn addr_canonicalize(&self, human: &str) -> BackendResult<Vec<u8>> {
+        let mut output = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut used_gas = 0_u64;
+        let canonicalize_address = self
+            .vtable
+            .canonicalize_address
+            .expect("vtable function 'canonicalize_address' not set");
+        let go_error: GoError = canonicalize_address(
+            self.state,
+            U8SliceView::new(Some(human.as_bytes())),
+            &mut output as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            &mut error_msg as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            &mut used_gas as *mut u64,
+        )
+        .into();
+        // We destruct the UnmanagedVector here, no matter if we need the data.
+        let output = output.consume();
+
+        let gas_info = GasInfo::with_cost(used_gas);
+
+        // return complete error message (reading from buffer for GoError::Other)
+        let default = || format!("Failed to canonicalize the address: {human}");
+        unsafe {
+            if let Err(err) = go_error.into_result(error_msg, default) {
+                return (Err(err), gas_info);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let result = output.ok_or_else(|| BackendError::unknown("Unset output"));
+        (result, gas_info)
+    }
+
+    fn addr_humanize(&self, canonical: &[u8]) -> BackendResult<String> {
+        let mut output = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut used_gas = 0_u64;
+        let humanize_address = self
+            .vtable
+            .humanize_address
+            .expect("vtable function 'humanize_address' not set");
+        let go_error: GoError = humanize_address(
+            self.state,
+            U8SliceView::new(Some(canonical)),
+            &mut output as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            &mut error_msg as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            &mut used_gas as *mut u64,
+        )
+        .into();
+        // We destruct the UnmanagedVector here, no matter if we need the data.
+        let output = output.consume();
+
+        let gas_info = GasInfo::with_cost(used_gas);
+
+        // return complete error message (reading from buffer for GoError::Other)
+        let default = || {
+            format!(
+                "Failed to humanize the address: {}",
+                hex::encode_upper(canonical)
+            )
+        };
+        unsafe {
+            if let Err(err) = go_error.into_result(error_msg, default) {
+                return (Err(err), gas_info);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let result = output
+            .ok_or_else(|| BackendError::unknown("Unset output"))
+            .and_then(|human_data| String::from_utf8(human_data).map_err(BackendError::from));
+        (result, gas_info)
+    }
+
+    fn addr_validate(&self, input: &str) -> BackendResult<()> {
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut used_gas = 0_u64;
+        let validate_address = self
+            .vtable
+            .validate_address
+            .expect("vtable function 'validate_address' not set");
+        let go_error: GoError = validate_address(
+            self.state,
+            U8SliceView::new(Some(input.as_bytes())),
+            &mut error_msg as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            &mut used_gas as *mut u64,
+        )
+        .into();
+
+        let gas_info = GasInfo::with_cost(used_gas);
+
+        // return complete error message (reading from buffer for GoError::Other)
+        let default = || format!("Failed to validate the address: {input}");
+        let result = unsafe { go_error.into_result(error_msg, default) };
+        (result, gas_info)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/args.rs b/libwasmvm/src/args.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..480867259
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/args.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+// store some common string for argument names
+pub const CONFIG_ARG: &str = "config";
+pub const CACHE_ARG: &str = "cache";
+pub const WASM_ARG: &str = "wasm";
+pub const CHECKSUM_ARG: &str = "checksum";
+pub const GAS_REPORT_ARG: &str = "gas_report";
+pub const ARG1: &str = "arg1";
+pub const ARG2: &str = "arg2";
+pub const ARG3: &str = "arg3";
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/cache.rs b/libwasmvm/src/cache.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..064abcd5b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/cache.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1078 @@
+use std::collections::BTreeSet;
+use std::convert::TryInto;
+use std::panic::{catch_unwind, AssertUnwindSafe};
+
+use cosmwasm_std::Checksum;
+use cosmwasm_vm::Cache;
+use serde::Serialize;
+
+use crate::api::GoApi;
+use crate::args::{CACHE_ARG, CHECKSUM_ARG, CONFIG_ARG, WASM_ARG};
+use crate::error::{handle_c_error_binary, handle_c_error_default, handle_c_error_ptr, Error};
+use crate::handle_vm_panic::handle_vm_panic;
+use crate::memory::{ByteSliceView, UnmanagedVector};
+use crate::querier::GoQuerier;
+use crate::storage::GoStorage;
+
+#[repr(C)]
+pub struct cache_t {}
+
+pub fn to_cache(ptr: *mut cache_t) -> Option<&'static mut Cache<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier>> {
+    if ptr.is_null() {
+        None
+    } else {
+        let c = unsafe { &mut *(ptr as *mut Cache<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier>) };
+        Some(c)
+    }
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn init_cache(
+    config: ByteSliceView,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> *mut cache_t {
+    let r = catch_unwind(|| do_init_cache(config)).unwrap_or_else(|err| {
+        handle_vm_panic("do_init_cache", err);
+        Err(Error::panic())
+    });
+    handle_c_error_ptr(r, error_msg) as *mut cache_t
+}
+
+fn do_init_cache(config: ByteSliceView) -> Result<*mut Cache<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier>, Error> {
+    let config =
+        serde_json::from_slice(config.read().ok_or_else(|| Error::unset_arg(CONFIG_ARG))?)?;
+    // parse the supported capabilities
+    let cache = unsafe { Cache::new_with_config(config) }?;
+    let out = Box::new(cache);
+    Ok(Box::into_raw(out))
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn store_code(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    wasm: ByteSliceView,
+    checked: bool,
+    persist: bool,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    let r = match to_cache(cache) {
+        Some(c) => catch_unwind(AssertUnwindSafe(move || {
+            do_store_code(c, wasm, checked, persist)
+        }))
+        .unwrap_or_else(|err| {
+            handle_vm_panic("do_store_code", err);
+            Err(Error::panic())
+        }),
+        None => Err(Error::unset_arg(CACHE_ARG)),
+    };
+    let checksum = handle_c_error_binary(r, error_msg);
+    UnmanagedVector::new(Some(checksum))
+}
+
+fn do_store_code(
+    cache: &mut Cache<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier>,
+    wasm: ByteSliceView,
+    checked: bool,
+    persist: bool,
+) -> Result<Checksum, Error> {
+    let wasm = wasm.read().ok_or_else(|| Error::unset_arg(WASM_ARG))?;
+    Ok(cache.store_code(wasm, checked, persist)?)
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn remove_wasm(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) {
+    let r = match to_cache(cache) {
+        Some(c) => catch_unwind(AssertUnwindSafe(move || do_remove_wasm(c, checksum)))
+            .unwrap_or_else(|err| {
+                handle_vm_panic("do_remove_wasm", err);
+                Err(Error::panic())
+            }),
+        None => Err(Error::unset_arg(CACHE_ARG)),
+    };
+    handle_c_error_default(r, error_msg)
+}
+
+fn do_remove_wasm(
+    cache: &mut Cache<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier>,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+) -> Result<(), Error> {
+    let checksum: Checksum = checksum
+        .read()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::unset_arg(CHECKSUM_ARG))?
+        .try_into()?;
+    cache.remove_wasm(&checksum)?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn load_wasm(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    let r = match to_cache(cache) {
+        Some(c) => catch_unwind(AssertUnwindSafe(move || do_load_wasm(c, checksum)))
+            .unwrap_or_else(|err| {
+                handle_vm_panic("do_load_wasm", err);
+                Err(Error::panic())
+            }),
+        None => Err(Error::unset_arg(CACHE_ARG)),
+    };
+    let data = handle_c_error_binary(r, error_msg);
+    UnmanagedVector::new(Some(data))
+}
+
+fn do_load_wasm(
+    cache: &mut Cache<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier>,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+) -> Result<Vec<u8>, Error> {
+    let checksum: Checksum = checksum
+        .read()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::unset_arg(CHECKSUM_ARG))?
+        .try_into()?;
+    let wasm = cache.load_wasm(&checksum)?;
+    Ok(wasm)
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn pin(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) {
+    let r = match to_cache(cache) {
+        Some(c) => {
+            catch_unwind(AssertUnwindSafe(move || do_pin(c, checksum))).unwrap_or_else(|err| {
+                handle_vm_panic("do_pin", err);
+                Err(Error::panic())
+            })
+        }
+        None => Err(Error::unset_arg(CACHE_ARG)),
+    };
+    handle_c_error_default(r, error_msg)
+}
+
+fn do_pin(
+    cache: &mut Cache<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier>,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+) -> Result<(), Error> {
+    let checksum: Checksum = checksum
+        .read()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::unset_arg(CHECKSUM_ARG))?
+        .try_into()?;
+    cache.pin(&checksum)?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn unpin(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) {
+    let r = match to_cache(cache) {
+        Some(c) => {
+            catch_unwind(AssertUnwindSafe(move || do_unpin(c, checksum))).unwrap_or_else(|err| {
+                handle_vm_panic("do_unpin", err);
+                Err(Error::panic())
+            })
+        }
+        None => Err(Error::unset_arg(CACHE_ARG)),
+    };
+    handle_c_error_default(r, error_msg)
+}
+
+fn do_unpin(
+    cache: &mut Cache<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier>,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+) -> Result<(), Error> {
+    let checksum: Checksum = checksum
+        .read()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::unset_arg(CHECKSUM_ARG))?
+        .try_into()?;
+    cache.unpin(&checksum)?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// The result type of the FFI function analyze_code.
+///
+/// Please note that the unmanaged vector in `required_capabilities`
+/// has to be destroyed exactly once. When calling `analyze_code`
+/// from Go this is done via `C.destroy_unmanaged_vector`.
+#[repr(C)]
+#[derive(Copy, Clone, Default, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct AnalysisReport {
+    /// `true` if and only if all required ibc exports exist as exported functions.
+    /// This does not guarantee they are functional or even have the correct signatures.
+    pub has_ibc_entry_points: bool,
+    /// A UTF-8 encoded comma separated list of all entrypoints that
+    /// are exported by the contract.
+    pub entrypoints: UnmanagedVector,
+    /// An UTF-8 encoded comma separated list of required capabilities.
+    /// This is never None/nil.
+    pub required_capabilities: UnmanagedVector,
+    /// The migrate version of the contract.
+    /// This is None if the contract does not have a migrate version and the `migrate` entrypoint
+    /// needs to be called for every migration (if present).
+    /// If it is `Some(version)`, it only needs to be called if the `version` increased.
+    pub contract_migrate_version: OptionalU64,
+}
+
+impl From<cosmwasm_vm::AnalysisReport> for AnalysisReport {
+    fn from(report: cosmwasm_vm::AnalysisReport) -> Self {
+        let cosmwasm_vm::AnalysisReport {
+            has_ibc_entry_points,
+            required_capabilities,
+            entrypoints,
+            contract_migrate_version,
+            ..
+        } = report;
+
+        let required_capabilities_utf8 = set_to_csv(required_capabilities).into_bytes();
+        let entrypoints = set_to_csv(entrypoints).into_bytes();
+        AnalysisReport {
+            has_ibc_entry_points,
+            required_capabilities: UnmanagedVector::new(Some(required_capabilities_utf8)),
+            entrypoints: UnmanagedVector::new(Some(entrypoints)),
+            contract_migrate_version: contract_migrate_version.into(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A version of `Option<u64>` that can be used safely in FFI.
+#[derive(Copy, Clone, Default, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[repr(C)]
+pub struct OptionalU64 {
+    is_some: bool,
+    value: u64,
+}
+
+impl From<Option<u64>> for OptionalU64 {
+    fn from(opt: Option<u64>) -> Self {
+        match opt {
+            None => OptionalU64 {
+                is_some: false,
+                value: 0, // value is ignored
+            },
+            Some(value) => OptionalU64 {
+                is_some: true,
+                value,
+            },
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Takes a set of string-like elements and returns a comma-separated list.
+/// Since no escaping or quoting is applied to the elements, the caller needs to ensure
+/// only simple alphanumeric values are used.
+///
+/// The order of the output elements is determined by the iteration order of the provided set.
+fn set_to_csv(set: BTreeSet<impl AsRef<str>>) -> String {
+    let list: Vec<&str> = set.iter().map(|e| e.as_ref()).collect();
+    list.join(",")
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn analyze_code(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> AnalysisReport {
+    let r = match to_cache(cache) {
+        Some(c) => catch_unwind(AssertUnwindSafe(move || do_analyze_code(c, checksum)))
+            .unwrap_or_else(|err| {
+                handle_vm_panic("do_analyze_code", err);
+                Err(Error::panic())
+            }),
+        None => Err(Error::unset_arg(CACHE_ARG)),
+    };
+    handle_c_error_default(r, error_msg)
+}
+
+fn do_analyze_code(
+    cache: &mut Cache<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier>,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+) -> Result<AnalysisReport, Error> {
+    let checksum: Checksum = checksum
+        .read()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::unset_arg(CHECKSUM_ARG))?
+        .try_into()?;
+    let report = cache.analyze(&checksum)?;
+    Ok(report.into())
+}
+
+#[repr(C)]
+#[derive(Copy, Clone, Default, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct Metrics {
+    pub hits_pinned_memory_cache: u32,
+    pub hits_memory_cache: u32,
+    pub hits_fs_cache: u32,
+    pub misses: u32,
+    pub elements_pinned_memory_cache: u64,
+    pub elements_memory_cache: u64,
+    pub size_pinned_memory_cache: u64,
+    pub size_memory_cache: u64,
+}
+
+impl From<cosmwasm_vm::Metrics> for Metrics {
+    fn from(report: cosmwasm_vm::Metrics) -> Self {
+        let cosmwasm_vm::Metrics {
+            stats:
+                cosmwasm_vm::Stats {
+                    hits_pinned_memory_cache,
+                    hits_memory_cache,
+                    hits_fs_cache,
+                    misses,
+                },
+            elements_pinned_memory_cache,
+            elements_memory_cache,
+            size_pinned_memory_cache,
+            size_memory_cache,
+        } = report;
+
+        Metrics {
+            hits_pinned_memory_cache,
+            hits_memory_cache,
+            hits_fs_cache,
+            misses,
+            elements_pinned_memory_cache: elements_pinned_memory_cache
+                .try_into()
+                .expect("usize is larger than 64 bit? Really?"),
+            elements_memory_cache: elements_memory_cache
+                .try_into()
+                .expect("usize is larger than 64 bit? Really?"),
+            size_pinned_memory_cache: size_pinned_memory_cache
+                .try_into()
+                .expect("usize is larger than 64 bit? Really?"),
+            size_memory_cache: size_memory_cache
+                .try_into()
+                .expect("usize is larger than 64 bit? Really?"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn get_metrics(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> Metrics {
+    let r = match to_cache(cache) {
+        Some(c) => {
+            catch_unwind(AssertUnwindSafe(move || do_get_metrics(c))).unwrap_or_else(|err| {
+                handle_vm_panic("do_get_metrics", err);
+                Err(Error::panic())
+            })
+        }
+        None => Err(Error::unset_arg(CACHE_ARG)),
+    };
+    handle_c_error_default(r, error_msg)
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::unnecessary_wraps)] // Keep unused Result for consistent boilerplate for all fn do_*
+fn do_get_metrics(cache: &mut Cache<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier>) -> Result<Metrics, Error> {
+    Ok(cache.metrics().into())
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize)]
+struct PerModuleMetrics {
+    hits: u32,
+    size: usize,
+}
+
+impl From<cosmwasm_vm::PerModuleMetrics> for PerModuleMetrics {
+    fn from(value: cosmwasm_vm::PerModuleMetrics) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            hits: value.hits,
+            size: value.size,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize)]
+struct PinnedMetrics {
+    // TODO: Remove the array usage as soon as `Checksum` has a stable wire format in msgpack
+    per_module: Vec<([u8; 32], PerModuleMetrics)>,
+}
+
+impl From<cosmwasm_vm::PinnedMetrics> for PinnedMetrics {
+    fn from(value: cosmwasm_vm::PinnedMetrics) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            per_module: value
+                .per_module
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(checksum, metrics)| (*checksum.as_ref(), metrics.into()))
+                .collect(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn get_pinned_metrics(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    let r = match to_cache(cache) {
+        Some(c) => {
+            catch_unwind(AssertUnwindSafe(move || do_get_pinned_metrics(c))).unwrap_or_else(|err| {
+                handle_vm_panic("do_get_pinned_metrics", err);
+                Err(Error::panic())
+            })
+        }
+        None => Err(Error::unset_arg(CACHE_ARG)),
+    };
+    handle_c_error_default(r, error_msg)
+}
+
+fn do_get_pinned_metrics(
+    cache: &mut Cache<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier>,
+) -> Result<UnmanagedVector, Error> {
+    let pinned_metrics = PinnedMetrics::from(cache.pinned_metrics());
+    let edgerunner = rmp_serde::to_vec(&pinned_metrics)?;
+    Ok(UnmanagedVector::new(Some(edgerunner)))
+}
+
+/// frees a cache reference
+///
+/// # Safety
+///
+/// This must be called exactly once for any `*cache_t` returned by `init_cache`
+/// and cannot be called on any other pointer.
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn release_cache(cache: *mut cache_t) {
+    if !cache.is_null() {
+        // this will free cache when it goes out of scope
+        let _ = unsafe { Box::from_raw(cache as *mut Cache<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier>) };
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use crate::assert_approx_eq;
+
+    use super::*;
+    use cosmwasm_vm::{CacheOptions, Config, Size};
+    use std::{cmp::Ordering, collections::HashSet, iter::FromIterator, path::PathBuf};
+    use tempfile::TempDir;
+
+    static HACKATOM: &[u8] = include_bytes!("../../testdata/hackatom.wasm");
+    static IBC_REFLECT: &[u8] = include_bytes!("../../testdata/ibc_reflect.wasm");
+
+    #[test]
+    fn init_cache_and_release_cache_work() {
+        let dir: String = TempDir::new().unwrap().path().to_str().unwrap().to_owned();
+        let capabilities = "staking".to_string();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let config = Config::new(CacheOptions::new(
+            dir,
+            [capabilities],
+            Size::mebi(512),
+            Size::mebi(32),
+        ));
+        let config = serde_json::to_vec(&config).unwrap();
+        let cache_ptr = init_cache(ByteSliceView::new(config.as_slice()), Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        release_cache(cache_ptr);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn init_cache_writes_error() {
+        let dir: String = String::from("broken\0dir"); // null bytes are valid UTF8 but not allowed in FS paths
+        let capabilities = "staking".to_string();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let config = Config::new(CacheOptions::new(
+            dir,
+            [capabilities],
+            Size::mebi(512),
+            Size::mebi(32),
+        ));
+        let config = serde_json::to_vec(&config).unwrap();
+        let cache_ptr = init_cache(ByteSliceView::new(config.as_slice()), Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert!(cache_ptr.is_null());
+        assert!(error_msg.is_some());
+        let msg = String::from_utf8(error_msg.consume().unwrap()).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            msg,
+            "Error calling the VM: Cache error: Error creating state directory"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn save_wasm_works() {
+        let dir: String = TempDir::new().unwrap().path().to_str().unwrap().to_owned();
+        let capabilities = "staking".to_string();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let config = Config::new(CacheOptions::new(
+            dir,
+            [capabilities],
+            Size::mebi(512),
+            Size::mebi(32),
+        ));
+        let config = serde_json::to_vec(&config).unwrap();
+        let cache_ptr = init_cache(ByteSliceView::new(config.as_slice()), Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        store_code(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(HACKATOM),
+            false,
+            true,
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        release_cache(cache_ptr);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn remove_wasm_works() {
+        let dir: String = TempDir::new().unwrap().path().to_str().unwrap().to_owned();
+        let capabilities = "staking".to_string();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let config = Config::new(CacheOptions::new(
+            dir,
+            [capabilities],
+            Size::mebi(512),
+            Size::mebi(32),
+        ));
+        let config = serde_json::to_vec(&config).unwrap();
+        let cache_ptr = init_cache(ByteSliceView::new(config.as_slice()), Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let checksum = store_code(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(HACKATOM),
+            false,
+            true,
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+        let checksum = checksum.consume().unwrap_or_default();
+
+        // Removing once works
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        remove_wasm(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(&checksum),
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Removing again fails
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        remove_wasm(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(&checksum),
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        let error_msg = error_msg
+            .consume()
+            .map(|e| String::from_utf8_lossy(&e).into_owned());
+        assert_eq!(
+            error_msg.unwrap(),
+            "Error calling the VM: Cache error: Wasm file does not exist"
+        );
+
+        release_cache(cache_ptr);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn load_wasm_works() {
+        let dir: String = TempDir::new().unwrap().path().to_str().unwrap().to_owned();
+        let capabilities = "staking".to_string();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let config = Config::new(CacheOptions::new(
+            dir,
+            [capabilities],
+            Size::mebi(512),
+            Size::mebi(32),
+        ));
+        let config = serde_json::to_vec(&config).unwrap();
+        let cache_ptr = init_cache(ByteSliceView::new(config.as_slice()), Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let checksum = store_code(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(HACKATOM),
+            false,
+            true,
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+        let checksum = checksum.consume().unwrap_or_default();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let wasm = load_wasm(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(&checksum),
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+        let wasm = wasm.consume().unwrap_or_default();
+        assert_eq!(wasm, HACKATOM);
+
+        release_cache(cache_ptr);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn pin_works() {
+        let dir: String = TempDir::new().unwrap().path().to_str().unwrap().to_owned();
+        let capabilities = "staking".to_string();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let config = Config::new(CacheOptions::new(
+            dir,
+            [capabilities],
+            Size::mebi(512),
+            Size::mebi(32),
+        ));
+        let config = serde_json::to_vec(&config).unwrap();
+        let cache_ptr = init_cache(ByteSliceView::new(config.as_slice()), Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let checksum = store_code(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(HACKATOM),
+            false,
+            true,
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+        let checksum = checksum.consume().unwrap_or_default();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        pin(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(&checksum),
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // pinning again has no effect
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        pin(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(&checksum),
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        release_cache(cache_ptr);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unpin_works() {
+        let dir: String = TempDir::new().unwrap().path().to_str().unwrap().to_owned();
+        let capabilities = "staking".to_string();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let config = Config::new(CacheOptions::new(
+            dir,
+            [capabilities],
+            Size::mebi(512),
+            Size::mebi(32),
+        ));
+        let config = serde_json::to_vec(&config).unwrap();
+        let cache_ptr = init_cache(ByteSliceView::new(config.as_slice()), Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let checksum = store_code(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(HACKATOM),
+            false,
+            true,
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+        let checksum = checksum.consume().unwrap_or_default();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        pin(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(&checksum),
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        unpin(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(&checksum),
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Unpinning again has no effect
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        unpin(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(&checksum),
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        release_cache(cache_ptr);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn analyze_code_works() {
+        let dir: String = TempDir::new().unwrap().path().to_str().unwrap().to_owned();
+        let capabilities = ["staking", "stargate", "iterator"].map(|c| c.to_string());
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let config = Config::new(CacheOptions::new(
+            dir,
+            capabilities,
+            Size::mebi(512),
+            Size::mebi(32),
+        ));
+        let config = serde_json::to_vec(&config).unwrap();
+        let cache_ptr = init_cache(ByteSliceView::new(config.as_slice()), Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let checksum_hackatom = store_code(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(HACKATOM),
+            false,
+            true,
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+        let checksum_hackatom = checksum_hackatom.consume().unwrap_or_default();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let checksum_ibc_reflect = store_code(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(IBC_REFLECT),
+            false,
+            true,
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+        let checksum_ibc_reflect = checksum_ibc_reflect.consume().unwrap_or_default();
+
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let hackatom_report = analyze_code(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(&checksum_hackatom),
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+        assert!(!hackatom_report.has_ibc_entry_points);
+        assert_eq!(
+            hackatom_report.required_capabilities.consume().unwrap(),
+            b""
+        );
+        assert!(hackatom_report.contract_migrate_version.is_some);
+        assert_eq!(hackatom_report.contract_migrate_version.value, 42);
+
+        let mut error_msg: UnmanagedVector = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let ibc_reflect_report = analyze_code(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(&checksum_ibc_reflect),
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+        assert!(ibc_reflect_report.has_ibc_entry_points);
+        let required_capabilities =
+            String::from_utf8_lossy(&ibc_reflect_report.required_capabilities.consume().unwrap())
+                .to_string();
+        assert_eq!(required_capabilities, "iterator,stargate");
+
+        release_cache(cache_ptr);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn set_to_csv_works() {
+        assert_eq!(set_to_csv(BTreeSet::<String>::new()), "");
+        assert_eq!(
+            set_to_csv(BTreeSet::from_iter(vec!["foo".to_string()])),
+            "foo",
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            set_to_csv(BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![
+                "foo".to_string(),
+                "bar".to_string(),
+                "baz".to_string(),
+            ])),
+            "bar,baz,foo",
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            set_to_csv(BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![
+                "a".to_string(),
+                "aa".to_string(),
+                "b".to_string(),
+                "c".to_string(),
+                "A".to_string(),
+                "AA".to_string(),
+                "B".to_string(),
+                "C".to_string(),
+            ])),
+            "A,AA,B,C,a,aa,b,c",
+        );
+
+        // str
+        assert_eq!(
+            set_to_csv(BTreeSet::from_iter(vec![
+                "a", "aa", "b", "c", "A", "AA", "B", "C",
+            ])),
+            "A,AA,B,C,a,aa,b,c",
+        );
+
+        // custom type with numeric ordering
+        #[derive(PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Clone, Copy)]
+        enum Number {
+            One = 1,
+            Two = 2,
+            Three = 3,
+            Eleven = 11,
+            Twelve = 12,
+            Zero = 0,
+            MinusOne = -1,
+        }
+
+        impl AsRef<str> for Number {
+            fn as_ref(&self) -> &str {
+                use Number::*;
+                match self {
+                    One => "1",
+                    Two => "2",
+                    Three => "3",
+                    Eleven => "11",
+                    Twelve => "12",
+                    Zero => "0",
+                    MinusOne => "-1",
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            set_to_csv(BTreeSet::from_iter([
+                Number::One,
+                Number::Two,
+                Number::Three,
+                Number::Eleven,
+                Number::Twelve,
+                Number::Zero,
+                Number::MinusOne,
+            ])),
+            "-1,0,1,2,3,11,12",
+        );
+
+        // custom type with lexicographical ordering
+        #[derive(PartialEq, Eq)]
+        enum Color {
+            Red,
+            Green,
+            Blue,
+            Yellow,
+        }
+
+        impl AsRef<str> for Color {
+            fn as_ref(&self) -> &str {
+                use Color::*;
+                match self {
+                    Red => "red",
+                    Green => "green",
+                    Blue => "blue",
+                    Yellow => "yellow",
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        impl Ord for Color {
+            fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Ordering {
+                // sort by name
+                self.as_ref().cmp(other.as_ref())
+            }
+        }
+
+        impl PartialOrd for Color {
+            fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<Ordering> {
+                Some(self.cmp(other))
+            }
+        }
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            set_to_csv(BTreeSet::from_iter([
+                Color::Red,
+                Color::Green,
+                Color::Blue,
+                Color::Yellow,
+            ])),
+            "blue,green,red,yellow",
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn get_metrics_works() {
+        let dir: String = TempDir::new().unwrap().path().to_str().unwrap().to_owned();
+        let capabilities = "staking".to_string();
+
+        // Init cache
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let config = Config::new(CacheOptions::new(
+            dir,
+            [capabilities],
+            Size::mebi(512),
+            Size::mebi(32),
+        ));
+        let config = serde_json::to_vec(&config).unwrap();
+        let cache_ptr = init_cache(ByteSliceView::new(config.as_slice()), Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Get metrics 1
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let metrics = get_metrics(cache_ptr, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+        assert_eq!(metrics, Metrics::default());
+
+        // Save wasm
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let checksum_hackatom = store_code(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(HACKATOM),
+            false,
+            true,
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+        let checksum = checksum_hackatom.consume().unwrap_or_default();
+
+        // Get metrics 2
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let metrics = get_metrics(cache_ptr, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+        assert_eq!(metrics, Metrics::default());
+
+        // Pin
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        pin(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(&checksum),
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Get metrics 3
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let metrics = get_metrics(cache_ptr, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+        let Metrics {
+            hits_pinned_memory_cache,
+            hits_memory_cache,
+            hits_fs_cache,
+            misses,
+            elements_pinned_memory_cache,
+            elements_memory_cache,
+            size_pinned_memory_cache,
+            size_memory_cache,
+        } = metrics;
+        assert_eq!(hits_pinned_memory_cache, 0);
+        assert_eq!(hits_memory_cache, 0);
+        assert_eq!(hits_fs_cache, 1);
+        assert_eq!(misses, 0);
+        assert_eq!(elements_pinned_memory_cache, 1);
+        assert_eq!(elements_memory_cache, 0);
+        assert_approx_eq!(
+            size_pinned_memory_cache,
+            3400000,
+            "0.2",
+            "size_pinned_memory_cache: {size_pinned_memory_cache}"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(size_memory_cache, 0);
+
+        // Unpin
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        unpin(
+            cache_ptr,
+            ByteSliceView::new(&checksum),
+            Some(&mut error_msg),
+        );
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Get metrics 4
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let metrics = get_metrics(cache_ptr, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+        assert_eq!(
+            metrics,
+            Metrics {
+                hits_pinned_memory_cache: 0,
+                hits_memory_cache: 0,
+                hits_fs_cache: 1,
+                misses: 0,
+                elements_pinned_memory_cache: 0,
+                elements_memory_cache: 0,
+                size_pinned_memory_cache: 0,
+                size_memory_cache: 0,
+            }
+        );
+
+        release_cache(cache_ptr);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_config_json() {
+        // see companion test "TestConfigJSON" on the Go side
+        const JSON: &str = r#"{"wasm_limits":{"initial_memory_limit_pages":15,"table_size_limit_elements":20,"max_imports":100,"max_function_params":0},"cache":{"base_dir":"/tmp","available_capabilities":["a","b"],"memory_cache_size_bytes":100,"instance_memory_limit_bytes":100}}"#;
+
+        let config: Config = serde_json::from_str(JSON).unwrap();
+
+        assert_eq!(config.wasm_limits.initial_memory_limit_pages(), 15);
+        assert_eq!(config.wasm_limits.table_size_limit_elements(), 20);
+        assert_eq!(config.wasm_limits.max_imports(), 100);
+        assert_eq!(config.wasm_limits.max_function_params(), 0);
+
+        // unset values have default values
+        assert_eq!(config.wasm_limits.max_total_function_params(), 10_000);
+
+        assert_eq!(config.cache.base_dir, PathBuf::from("/tmp"));
+        assert_eq!(
+            config.cache.available_capabilities,
+            HashSet::from_iter(["a".to_string(), "b".to_string()])
+        );
+        assert_eq!(config.cache.memory_cache_size_bytes, Size::new(100));
+        assert_eq!(config.cache.instance_memory_limit_bytes, Size::new(100));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/calls.rs b/libwasmvm/src/calls.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b49ac142a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/calls.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,680 @@
+//! A module containing calls into smart contracts via Cache and Instance.
+
+use std::convert::TryInto;
+use std::panic::{catch_unwind, AssertUnwindSafe};
+use std::time::SystemTime;
+use time::{format_description::well_known::Rfc3339, OffsetDateTime};
+
+use cosmwasm_std::Checksum;
+use cosmwasm_vm::{
+    call_execute_raw, call_ibc_channel_close_raw, call_ibc_channel_connect_raw,
+    call_ibc_channel_open_raw, call_ibc_destination_callback_raw, call_ibc_packet_ack_raw,
+    call_ibc_packet_receive_raw, call_ibc_packet_timeout_raw, call_ibc_source_callback_raw,
+    call_instantiate_raw, call_migrate_raw, call_migrate_with_info_raw, call_query_raw,
+    call_reply_raw, call_sudo_raw, Backend, Cache, Instance, InstanceOptions, VmResult,
+};
+
+use crate::api::GoApi;
+use crate::args::{ARG1, ARG2, ARG3, CACHE_ARG, CHECKSUM_ARG, GAS_REPORT_ARG};
+use crate::cache::{cache_t, to_cache};
+use crate::db::Db;
+use crate::error::{handle_c_error_binary, Error};
+use crate::handle_vm_panic::handle_vm_panic;
+use crate::memory::{ByteSliceView, UnmanagedVector};
+use crate::querier::GoQuerier;
+use crate::storage::GoStorage;
+use crate::GasReport;
+
+fn into_backend(db: Db, api: GoApi, querier: GoQuerier) -> Backend<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier> {
+    Backend {
+        api,
+        storage: GoStorage::new(db),
+        querier,
+    }
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn instantiate(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    env: ByteSliceView,
+    info: ByteSliceView,
+    msg: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    call_3_args(
+        call_instantiate_raw,
+        cache,
+        checksum,
+        env,
+        info,
+        msg,
+        db,
+        api,
+        querier,
+        gas_limit,
+        print_debug,
+        gas_report,
+        error_msg,
+    )
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn execute(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    env: ByteSliceView,
+    info: ByteSliceView,
+    msg: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    call_3_args(
+        call_execute_raw,
+        cache,
+        checksum,
+        env,
+        info,
+        msg,
+        db,
+        api,
+        querier,
+        gas_limit,
+        print_debug,
+        gas_report,
+        error_msg,
+    )
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn migrate(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    env: ByteSliceView,
+    msg: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    call_2_args(
+        call_migrate_raw,
+        cache,
+        checksum,
+        env,
+        msg,
+        db,
+        api,
+        querier,
+        gas_limit,
+        print_debug,
+        gas_report,
+        error_msg,
+    )
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn migrate_with_info(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    env: ByteSliceView,
+    msg: ByteSliceView,
+    migrate_info: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    call_3_args(
+        call_migrate_with_info_raw,
+        cache,
+        checksum,
+        env,
+        msg,
+        migrate_info,
+        db,
+        api,
+        querier,
+        gas_limit,
+        print_debug,
+        gas_report,
+        error_msg,
+    )
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn sudo(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    env: ByteSliceView,
+    msg: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    call_2_args(
+        call_sudo_raw,
+        cache,
+        checksum,
+        env,
+        msg,
+        db,
+        api,
+        querier,
+        gas_limit,
+        print_debug,
+        gas_report,
+        error_msg,
+    )
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn reply(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    env: ByteSliceView,
+    msg: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    call_2_args(
+        call_reply_raw,
+        cache,
+        checksum,
+        env,
+        msg,
+        db,
+        api,
+        querier,
+        gas_limit,
+        print_debug,
+        gas_report,
+        error_msg,
+    )
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn query(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    env: ByteSliceView,
+    msg: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    call_2_args(
+        call_query_raw,
+        cache,
+        checksum,
+        env,
+        msg,
+        db,
+        api,
+        querier,
+        gas_limit,
+        print_debug,
+        gas_report,
+        error_msg,
+    )
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn ibc_channel_open(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    env: ByteSliceView,
+    msg: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    call_2_args(
+        call_ibc_channel_open_raw,
+        cache,
+        checksum,
+        env,
+        msg,
+        db,
+        api,
+        querier,
+        gas_limit,
+        print_debug,
+        gas_report,
+        error_msg,
+    )
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn ibc_channel_connect(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    env: ByteSliceView,
+    msg: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    call_2_args(
+        call_ibc_channel_connect_raw,
+        cache,
+        checksum,
+        env,
+        msg,
+        db,
+        api,
+        querier,
+        gas_limit,
+        print_debug,
+        gas_report,
+        error_msg,
+    )
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn ibc_channel_close(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    env: ByteSliceView,
+    msg: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    call_2_args(
+        call_ibc_channel_close_raw,
+        cache,
+        checksum,
+        env,
+        msg,
+        db,
+        api,
+        querier,
+        gas_limit,
+        print_debug,
+        gas_report,
+        error_msg,
+    )
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn ibc_packet_receive(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    env: ByteSliceView,
+    msg: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    call_2_args(
+        call_ibc_packet_receive_raw,
+        cache,
+        checksum,
+        env,
+        msg,
+        db,
+        api,
+        querier,
+        gas_limit,
+        print_debug,
+        gas_report,
+        error_msg,
+    )
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn ibc_packet_ack(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    env: ByteSliceView,
+    msg: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    call_2_args(
+        call_ibc_packet_ack_raw,
+        cache,
+        checksum,
+        env,
+        msg,
+        db,
+        api,
+        querier,
+        gas_limit,
+        print_debug,
+        gas_report,
+        error_msg,
+    )
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn ibc_packet_timeout(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    env: ByteSliceView,
+    msg: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    call_2_args(
+        call_ibc_packet_timeout_raw,
+        cache,
+        checksum,
+        env,
+        msg,
+        db,
+        api,
+        querier,
+        gas_limit,
+        print_debug,
+        gas_report,
+        error_msg,
+    )
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn ibc_source_callback(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    env: ByteSliceView,
+    msg: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    call_2_args(
+        call_ibc_source_callback_raw,
+        cache,
+        checksum,
+        env,
+        msg,
+        db,
+        api,
+        querier,
+        gas_limit,
+        print_debug,
+        gas_report,
+        error_msg,
+    )
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn ibc_destination_callback(
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    env: ByteSliceView,
+    msg: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    call_2_args(
+        call_ibc_destination_callback_raw,
+        cache,
+        checksum,
+        env,
+        msg,
+        db,
+        api,
+        querier,
+        gas_limit,
+        print_debug,
+        gas_report,
+        error_msg,
+    )
+}
+
+type VmFn2Args = fn(
+    instance: &mut Instance<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier>,
+    arg1: &[u8],
+    arg2: &[u8],
+) -> VmResult<Vec<u8>>;
+
+// this wraps all error handling and ffi for the 6 ibc entry points and query.
+// (all of which take env and one "msg" argument).
+// the only difference is which low-level function they dispatch to.
+fn call_2_args(
+    vm_fn: VmFn2Args,
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    arg1: ByteSliceView,
+    arg2: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    let r = match to_cache(cache) {
+        Some(c) => catch_unwind(AssertUnwindSafe(move || {
+            do_call_2_args(
+                vm_fn,
+                c,
+                checksum,
+                arg1,
+                arg2,
+                db,
+                api,
+                querier,
+                gas_limit,
+                print_debug,
+                gas_report,
+            )
+        }))
+        .unwrap_or_else(|err| {
+            handle_vm_panic("do_call_2_args", err);
+            Err(Error::panic())
+        }),
+        None => Err(Error::unset_arg(CACHE_ARG)),
+    };
+    let data = handle_c_error_binary(r, error_msg);
+    UnmanagedVector::new(Some(data))
+}
+
+// this is internal processing, same for all the 6 ibc entry points
+fn do_call_2_args(
+    vm_fn: VmFn2Args,
+    cache: &mut Cache<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier>,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    arg1: ByteSliceView,
+    arg2: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+) -> Result<Vec<u8>, Error> {
+    let gas_report = gas_report.ok_or_else(|| Error::empty_arg(GAS_REPORT_ARG))?;
+    let checksum: Checksum = checksum
+        .read()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::unset_arg(CHECKSUM_ARG))?
+        .try_into()?;
+    let arg1 = arg1.read().ok_or_else(|| Error::unset_arg(ARG1))?;
+    let arg2 = arg2.read().ok_or_else(|| Error::unset_arg(ARG2))?;
+
+    let backend = into_backend(db, api, querier);
+    let options = InstanceOptions { gas_limit };
+    let mut instance: Instance<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier> =
+        cache.get_instance(&checksum, backend, options)?;
+
+    // If print_debug = false, use default debug handler from cosmwasm-vm, which discards messages
+    if print_debug {
+        instance.set_debug_handler(|msg, info| {
+            let t = now_rfc3339();
+            let gas = info.gas_remaining;
+            eprintln!("[{t}]: {msg} (gas remaining: {gas})");
+        });
+    }
+
+    // We only check this result after reporting gas usage and returning the instance into the cache.
+    let res = vm_fn(&mut instance, arg1, arg2);
+    *gas_report = instance.create_gas_report().into();
+    Ok(res?)
+}
+
+type VmFn3Args = fn(
+    instance: &mut Instance<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier>,
+    arg1: &[u8],
+    arg2: &[u8],
+    arg3: &[u8],
+) -> VmResult<Vec<u8>>;
+
+// This wraps all error handling and ffi for instantiate, execute and migrate
+// (and anything else that takes env, info and msg arguments).
+// The only difference is which low-level function they dispatch to.
+fn call_3_args(
+    vm_fn: VmFn3Args,
+    cache: *mut cache_t,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    arg1: ByteSliceView,
+    arg2: ByteSliceView,
+    arg3: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    let r = match to_cache(cache) {
+        Some(c) => catch_unwind(AssertUnwindSafe(move || {
+            do_call_3_args(
+                vm_fn,
+                c,
+                checksum,
+                arg1,
+                arg2,
+                arg3,
+                db,
+                api,
+                querier,
+                gas_limit,
+                print_debug,
+                gas_report,
+            )
+        }))
+        .unwrap_or_else(|err| {
+            handle_vm_panic("do_call_3_args", err);
+            Err(Error::panic())
+        }),
+        None => Err(Error::unset_arg(CACHE_ARG)),
+    };
+    let data = handle_c_error_binary(r, error_msg);
+    UnmanagedVector::new(Some(data))
+}
+
+fn do_call_3_args(
+    vm_fn: VmFn3Args,
+    cache: &mut Cache<GoApi, GoStorage, GoQuerier>,
+    checksum: ByteSliceView,
+    arg1: ByteSliceView,
+    arg2: ByteSliceView,
+    arg3: ByteSliceView,
+    db: Db,
+    api: GoApi,
+    querier: GoQuerier,
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    print_debug: bool,
+    gas_report: Option<&mut GasReport>,
+) -> Result<Vec<u8>, Error> {
+    let gas_report = gas_report.ok_or_else(|| Error::empty_arg(GAS_REPORT_ARG))?;
+    let checksum: Checksum = checksum
+        .read()
+        .ok_or_else(|| Error::unset_arg(CHECKSUM_ARG))?
+        .try_into()?;
+    let arg1 = arg1.read().ok_or_else(|| Error::unset_arg(ARG1))?;
+    let arg2 = arg2.read().ok_or_else(|| Error::unset_arg(ARG2))?;
+    let arg3 = arg3.read().ok_or_else(|| Error::unset_arg(ARG3))?;
+
+    let backend = into_backend(db, api, querier);
+    let options = InstanceOptions { gas_limit };
+    let mut instance = cache.get_instance(&checksum, backend, options)?;
+
+    // If print_debug = false, use default debug handler from cosmwasm-vm, which discards messages
+    if print_debug {
+        instance.set_debug_handler(|msg, info| {
+            let t = now_rfc3339();
+            let gas = info.gas_remaining;
+            eprintln!("[{t}]: {msg} (gas remaining: {gas})");
+        });
+    }
+
+    // We only check this result after reporting gas usage and returning the instance into the cache.
+    let res = vm_fn(&mut instance, arg1, arg2, arg3);
+    *gas_report = instance.create_gas_report().into();
+    Ok(res?)
+}
+
+fn now_rfc3339() -> String {
+    let dt = OffsetDateTime::from(SystemTime::now());
+    dt.format(&Rfc3339).unwrap_or_default()
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/db.rs b/libwasmvm/src/db.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..3f75d8642
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/db.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
+use crate::gas_meter::gas_meter_t;
+use crate::iterator::GoIter;
+use crate::memory::{U8SliceView, UnmanagedVector};
+use crate::vtables::Vtable;
+
+// this represents something passed in from the caller side of FFI
+#[repr(C)]
+pub struct db_t {
+    _private: [u8; 0],
+}
+
+// These functions should return GoError but because we don't trust them here, we treat the return value as i32
+// and then check it when converting to GoError manually
+#[repr(C)]
+#[derive(Default)]
+pub struct DbVtable {
+    pub read_db: Option<
+        extern "C" fn(
+            db: *mut db_t,
+            gas_meter: *mut gas_meter_t,
+            gas_used: *mut u64,
+            key: U8SliceView,
+            value_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            err_msg_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+        ) -> i32,
+    >,
+    pub write_db: Option<
+        extern "C" fn(
+            db: *mut db_t,
+            gas_meter: *mut gas_meter_t,
+            gas_used: *mut u64,
+            key: U8SliceView,
+            value: U8SliceView,
+            err_msg_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+        ) -> i32,
+    >,
+    pub remove_db: Option<
+        extern "C" fn(
+            db: *mut db_t,
+            gas_meter: *mut gas_meter_t,
+            gas_used: *mut u64,
+            key: U8SliceView,
+            err_msg_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+        ) -> i32,
+    >,
+    // order -> Ascending = 1, Descending = 2
+    // Note: we cannot set gas_meter on the returned GoIter due to cgo memory safety.
+    // Since we have the pointer in rust already, we must set that manually
+    pub scan_db: Option<
+        extern "C" fn(
+            db: *mut db_t,
+            gas_meter: *mut gas_meter_t,
+            gas_used: *mut u64,
+            start: U8SliceView,
+            end: U8SliceView,
+            order: i32,
+            iterator_out: *mut GoIter,
+            err_msg_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+        ) -> i32,
+    >,
+}
+
+impl Vtable for DbVtable {}
+
+#[repr(C)]
+pub struct Db {
+    pub gas_meter: *mut gas_meter_t,
+    pub state: *mut db_t,
+    pub vtable: DbVtable,
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/error/go.rs b/libwasmvm/src/error/go.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..1d8d65edd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/error/go.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,191 @@
+use cosmwasm_vm::BackendError;
+
+use crate::memory::UnmanagedVector;
+
+/// This enum gives names to the status codes returned from Go callbacks to Rust.
+/// The Go code will return one of these variants when returning.
+///
+/// 0 means no error, all the other cases are some sort of error.
+///
+/// cbindgen:prefix-with-name
+// NOTE TO DEVS: If you change the values assigned to the variants of this enum, You must also
+//               update the match statement in the From conversion below.
+//               Otherwise all hell may break loose.
+//               You have been warned.
+//
+#[repr(i32)] // This makes it so the enum looks like a simple i32 to Go
+#[derive(PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum GoError {
+    None = 0,
+    /// Go panicked for an unexpected reason.
+    Panic = 1,
+    /// Go received a bad argument from Rust
+    BadArgument = 2,
+    /// Ran out of gas while using the SDK (e.g. storage). This can come from the Cosmos SDK gas meter
+    /// (https://github.com/cosmos/cosmos-sdk/blob/v0.45.4/store/types/gas.go#L29-L32).
+    OutOfGas = 3,
+    /// Error while trying to serialize data in Go code (typically json.Marshal)
+    CannotSerialize = 4,
+    /// An error happened during normal operation of a Go callback, which should be fed back to the contract
+    User = 5,
+    /// An error type that should never be created by us. It only serves as a fallback for the i32 to GoError conversion.
+    Other = -1,
+}
+
+impl From<i32> for GoError {
+    fn from(n: i32) -> Self {
+        // This conversion treats any number that is not otherwise an expected value as `GoError::Other`
+        match n {
+            0 => GoError::None,
+            1 => GoError::Panic,
+            2 => GoError::BadArgument,
+            3 => GoError::OutOfGas,
+            4 => GoError::CannotSerialize,
+            5 => GoError::User,
+            _ => GoError::Other,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl GoError {
+    /// This converts a GoError to a `Result<(), BackendError>`, using a fallback error message for some cases.
+    /// If it is GoError::User the error message will be returned to the contract.
+    /// Otherwise, the returned error will trigger a trap in the VM and abort contract execution immediately.
+    ///
+    /// This reads data from an externally provided `UnmanagedVector` and assumes UFT-8 encoding. To protect
+    /// against invalid UTF-8 data, a lossy conversion to string is used. The data is limited to 8KB in order
+    /// to protect against long externally generated error messages.
+    ///
+    /// The `error_msg` is always consumed here and must not be used afterwards.
+    pub unsafe fn into_result<F>(
+        self,
+        error_msg: UnmanagedVector,
+        default_error_msg: F,
+    ) -> Result<(), BackendError>
+    where
+        F: FnOnce() -> String,
+    {
+        const MAX_ERROR_LEN: usize = 8 * 1024;
+
+        // We destruct the UnmanagedVector here, no matter if we need the data.
+        let error_msg = error_msg.consume();
+
+        let build_error_msg = || -> String {
+            match error_msg {
+                Some(mut data) => {
+                    data.truncate(MAX_ERROR_LEN);
+                    String::from_utf8_lossy(&data).into()
+                }
+                None => default_error_msg(),
+            }
+        };
+
+        match self {
+            // Success
+            GoError::None => Ok(()),
+            // Errors with direct counterpart
+            GoError::Panic => Err(BackendError::foreign_panic()),
+            GoError::BadArgument => Err(BackendError::bad_argument()),
+            GoError::OutOfGas => Err(BackendError::out_of_gas()),
+            GoError::User => Err(BackendError::user_err(build_error_msg())),
+            // Everything else goes into unknown
+            GoError::CannotSerialize | GoError::Other => {
+                Err(BackendError::unknown(build_error_msg()))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use cosmwasm_vm::BackendError;
+
+    use super::{GoError, UnmanagedVector};
+
+    #[test]
+    fn go_error_into_result_works() {
+        let default = || "Something went wrong but we don't know".to_string();
+
+        let error = GoError::None;
+        let error_msg = UnmanagedVector::new(None);
+        let a = unsafe { error.into_result(error_msg, default) };
+        assert_eq!(a, Ok(()));
+
+        let error = GoError::Panic;
+        let error_msg = UnmanagedVector::new(None);
+        let a = unsafe { error.into_result(error_msg, default) };
+        assert_eq!(a.unwrap_err(), BackendError::ForeignPanic {});
+
+        let error = GoError::BadArgument;
+        let error_msg = UnmanagedVector::new(None);
+        let a = unsafe { error.into_result(error_msg, default) };
+        assert_eq!(a.unwrap_err(), BackendError::BadArgument {});
+
+        let error = GoError::OutOfGas;
+        let error_msg = UnmanagedVector::new(None);
+        let a = unsafe { error.into_result(error_msg, default) };
+        assert_eq!(a.unwrap_err(), BackendError::OutOfGas {});
+
+        // CannotSerialize maps to Unknown
+        let error = GoError::CannotSerialize;
+        let error_msg = UnmanagedVector::new(None);
+        let a = unsafe { error.into_result(error_msg, default) };
+        assert_eq!(a.unwrap_err(), BackendError::Unknown { msg: default() });
+
+        // GoError::User with none message
+        let error = GoError::User;
+        let error_msg = UnmanagedVector::new(None);
+        let a = unsafe { error.into_result(error_msg, default) };
+        assert_eq!(a.unwrap_err(), BackendError::UserErr { msg: default() });
+
+        // GoError::User with some message
+        let error = GoError::User;
+        let error_msg = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(Vec::from(b"kaputt" as &[u8])));
+        let a = unsafe { error.into_result(error_msg, default) };
+        assert_eq!(
+            a.unwrap_err(),
+            BackendError::UserErr {
+                msg: "kaputt".to_string()
+            }
+        );
+
+        // GoError::User with some message too long message
+        let error = GoError::User;
+        let error_msg = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(vec![0x61; 10000])); // 10000 times "a"
+        let a = unsafe { error.into_result(error_msg, default) };
+        assert_eq!(
+            a.unwrap_err(),
+            BackendError::UserErr {
+                msg: "a".repeat(8192)
+            }
+        );
+
+        // GoError::Other with none message
+        let error = GoError::Other;
+        let error_msg = UnmanagedVector::new(None);
+        let a = unsafe { error.into_result(error_msg, default) };
+        assert_eq!(a.unwrap_err(), BackendError::Unknown { msg: default() });
+
+        // GoError::Other with some message
+        let error = GoError::Other;
+        let error_msg = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(Vec::from(b"kaputt" as &[u8])));
+        let a = unsafe { error.into_result(error_msg, default) };
+        assert_eq!(
+            a.unwrap_err(),
+            BackendError::Unknown {
+                msg: "kaputt".to_string()
+            }
+        );
+
+        // GoError::Other with some message too long message
+        let error = GoError::Other;
+        let error_msg = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(vec![0x61; 10000])); // 10000 times "a"
+        let a = unsafe { error.into_result(error_msg, default) };
+        assert_eq!(
+            a.unwrap_err(),
+            BackendError::Unknown {
+                msg: "a".repeat(8192)
+            }
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/error/mod.rs b/libwasmvm/src/error/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..96130ed83
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/error/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+mod go;
+mod rust;
+
+pub use go::GoError;
+pub use rust::{
+    handle_c_error_binary, handle_c_error_default, handle_c_error_ptr, RustError as Error,
+};
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/error/rust.rs b/libwasmvm/src/error/rust.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..5c99e185c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/error/rust.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,585 @@
+use cosmwasm_std::ChecksumError;
+use cosmwasm_vm::VmError;
+use errno::{set_errno, Errno};
+#[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+use std::backtrace::Backtrace;
+use thiserror::Error;
+
+use crate::memory::UnmanagedVector;
+
+#[derive(Error, Debug)]
+pub enum RustError {
+    #[error("Empty argument: {}", name)]
+    EmptyArg {
+        name: String,
+        #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+        backtrace: Backtrace,
+    },
+    /// Whenever UTF-8 bytes cannot be decoded into a unicode string, e.g. in String::from_utf8 or str::from_utf8.
+    #[error("Cannot decode UTF8 bytes into string: {}", msg)]
+    InvalidUtf8 {
+        msg: String,
+        #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+        backtrace: Backtrace,
+    },
+    #[error("Cannot deserialize from MessagePack: {msg}")]
+    MessagePack {
+        msg: String,
+        #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+        backtrace: Backtrace,
+    },
+    #[error("Cannot serialize to / deserialize from JSON: {msg}")]
+    Json {
+        msg: String,
+        #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+        backtrace: Backtrace,
+    },
+    #[error("Ran out of gas")]
+    OutOfGas {
+        #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+        backtrace: Backtrace,
+    },
+    #[error("Caught panic")]
+    Panic {
+        #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+        backtrace: Backtrace,
+    },
+    #[error("Null/Nil argument: {}", name)]
+    UnsetArg {
+        name: String,
+        #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+        backtrace: Backtrace,
+    },
+    #[error("Checksum not of length 32")]
+    ChecksumError {
+        #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+        backtrace: Backtrace,
+    },
+    #[error("Error calling the VM: {}", msg)]
+    VmErr {
+        msg: String,
+        #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+        backtrace: Backtrace,
+    },
+}
+
+impl RustError {
+    pub fn empty_arg<T: Into<String>>(name: T) -> Self {
+        RustError::EmptyArg {
+            name: name.into(),
+            #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+            backtrace: Backtrace::capture(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn invalid_utf8<S: ToString>(msg: S) -> Self {
+        RustError::InvalidUtf8 {
+            msg: msg.to_string(),
+            #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+            backtrace: Backtrace::capture(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn message_pack<S: ToString>(msg: S) -> Self {
+        RustError::MessagePack {
+            msg: msg.to_string(),
+            #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+            backtrace: Backtrace::capture(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn panic() -> Self {
+        RustError::Panic {
+            #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+            backtrace: Backtrace::capture(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn unset_arg<T: Into<String>>(name: T) -> Self {
+        RustError::UnsetArg {
+            name: name.into(),
+            #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+            backtrace: Backtrace::capture(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn vm_err<S: ToString>(msg: S) -> Self {
+        RustError::VmErr {
+            msg: msg.to_string(),
+            #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+            backtrace: Backtrace::capture(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn out_of_gas() -> Self {
+        RustError::OutOfGas {
+            #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+            backtrace: Backtrace::capture(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn checksum_err() -> Self {
+        RustError::ChecksumError {
+            #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+            backtrace: Backtrace::capture(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<VmError> for RustError {
+    fn from(source: VmError) -> Self {
+        match source {
+            VmError::GasDepletion { .. } => RustError::out_of_gas(),
+            _ => RustError::vm_err(source),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<ChecksumError> for RustError {
+    fn from(_: ChecksumError) -> Self {
+        RustError::checksum_err()
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<serde_json::Error> for RustError {
+    fn from(source: serde_json::Error) -> Self {
+        RustError::Json {
+            msg: source.to_string(),
+            #[cfg(feature = "backtraces")]
+            backtrace: Backtrace::capture(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<rmp_serde::encode::Error> for RustError {
+    fn from(source: rmp_serde::encode::Error) -> Self {
+        RustError::message_pack(source)
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<rmp_serde::decode::Error> for RustError {
+    fn from(source: rmp_serde::decode::Error) -> Self {
+        RustError::message_pack(source)
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<std::str::Utf8Error> for RustError {
+    fn from(source: std::str::Utf8Error) -> Self {
+        RustError::invalid_utf8(source)
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<std::string::FromUtf8Error> for RustError {
+    fn from(source: std::string::FromUtf8Error) -> Self {
+        RustError::invalid_utf8(source)
+    }
+}
+
+/// cbindgen:prefix-with-name
+#[repr(i32)]
+enum ErrnoValue {
+    Success = 0,
+    Other = 1,
+    OutOfGas = 2,
+}
+
+pub fn clear_error() {
+    set_errno(Errno(ErrnoValue::Success as i32));
+}
+
+pub fn set_error(err: RustError, error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>) {
+    if let Some(error_msg) = error_msg {
+        let msg: Vec<u8> = err.to_string().into();
+        *error_msg = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(msg));
+    } else {
+        // The caller provided a nil pointer for the error message.
+        // That's not nice but we can live with it.
+    }
+
+    let errno = match err {
+        RustError::OutOfGas { .. } => ErrnoValue::OutOfGas,
+        _ => ErrnoValue::Other,
+    } as i32;
+    set_errno(Errno(errno));
+}
+
+/// If `result` is Ok, this returns the Ok value and clears [errno].
+/// Otherwise it returns a null pointer, writes the error message to `error_msg` and sets [errno].
+///
+/// [errno]: https://utcc.utoronto.ca/~cks/space/blog/programming/GoCgoErrorReturns
+pub fn handle_c_error_ptr<T>(
+    result: Result<*mut T, RustError>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> *mut T {
+    match result {
+        Ok(value) => {
+            clear_error();
+            value
+        }
+        Err(error) => {
+            set_error(error, error_msg);
+            std::ptr::null_mut()
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// If `result` is Ok, this returns the binary representation of the Ok value and clears [errno].
+/// Otherwise it returns an empty vector, writes the error message to `error_msg` and sets [errno].
+///
+/// [errno]: https://utcc.utoronto.ca/~cks/space/blog/programming/GoCgoErrorReturns
+pub fn handle_c_error_binary<T>(
+    result: Result<T, RustError>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> Vec<u8>
+where
+    T: Into<Vec<u8>>,
+{
+    match result {
+        Ok(value) => {
+            clear_error();
+            value.into()
+        }
+        Err(error) => {
+            set_error(error, error_msg);
+            Vec::new()
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// If `result` is Ok, this returns the Ok value and clears [errno].
+/// Otherwise it returns the default value, writes the error message to `error_msg` and sets [errno].
+///
+/// [errno]: https://utcc.utoronto.ca/~cks/space/blog/programming/GoCgoErrorReturns
+pub fn handle_c_error_default<T>(
+    result: Result<T, RustError>,
+    error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+) -> T
+where
+    T: Default,
+{
+    match result {
+        Ok(value) => {
+            clear_error();
+            value
+        }
+        Err(error) => {
+            set_error(error, error_msg);
+            Default::default()
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use cosmwasm_std::Checksum;
+    use cosmwasm_vm::BackendError;
+    use errno::errno;
+    use std::str;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn empty_arg_works() {
+        let error = RustError::empty_arg("gas");
+        match error {
+            RustError::EmptyArg { name, .. } => {
+                assert_eq!(name, "gas");
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expect different error"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn invalid_utf8_works_for_strings() {
+        let error = RustError::invalid_utf8("my text");
+        match error {
+            RustError::InvalidUtf8 { msg, .. } => {
+                assert_eq!(msg, "my text");
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expect different error"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn invalid_utf8_works_for_errors() {
+        let original = String::from_utf8(vec![0x80]).unwrap_err();
+        let error = RustError::invalid_utf8(original);
+        match error {
+            RustError::InvalidUtf8 { msg, .. } => {
+                assert_eq!(msg, "invalid utf-8 sequence of 1 bytes from index 0");
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expect different error"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn panic_works() {
+        let error = RustError::panic();
+        match error {
+            RustError::Panic { .. } => {}
+            _ => panic!("expect different error"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unset_arg_works() {
+        let error = RustError::unset_arg("gas");
+        match error {
+            RustError::UnsetArg { name, .. } => {
+                assert_eq!(name, "gas");
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expect different error"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn vm_err_works_for_strings() {
+        let error = RustError::vm_err("my text");
+        match error {
+            RustError::VmErr { msg, .. } => {
+                assert_eq!(msg, "my text");
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expect different error"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn vm_err_works_for_errors() {
+        // No public interface exists to generate a VmError directly
+        let original: VmError = BackendError::out_of_gas().into();
+        let error = RustError::vm_err(original);
+        match error {
+            RustError::VmErr { msg, .. } => {
+                assert_eq!(msg, "Ran out of gas during contract execution");
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expect different error"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Tests of `impl From<X> for RustError` converters
+
+    #[test]
+    fn from_std_str_utf8error_works() {
+        let broken = Vec::from(b"Hello \xF0\x90\x80World" as &[u8]);
+        let error: RustError = str::from_utf8(&broken).unwrap_err().into();
+        match error {
+            RustError::InvalidUtf8 { msg, .. } => {
+                assert_eq!(msg, "invalid utf-8 sequence of 3 bytes from index 6")
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expect different error"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn from_std_string_fromutf8error_works() {
+        let error: RustError = String::from_utf8(b"Hello \xF0\x90\x80World".to_vec())
+            .unwrap_err()
+            .into();
+        match error {
+            RustError::InvalidUtf8 { msg, .. } => {
+                assert_eq!(msg, "invalid utf-8 sequence of 3 bytes from index 6")
+            }
+            _ => panic!("expect different error"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn handle_c_error_binary_works() {
+        // Ok (non-empty vector)
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<Vec<u8>, RustError> = Ok(vec![0xF0, 0x0B, 0xAA]);
+        let data = handle_c_error_binary(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Success as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(data, vec![0xF0, 0x0B, 0xAA]);
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Ok (empty vector)
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<Vec<u8>, RustError> = Ok(vec![]);
+        let data = handle_c_error_binary(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Success as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(data, Vec::<u8>::new());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Ok (non-empty slice)
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<&[u8], RustError> = Ok(b"foobar");
+        let data = handle_c_error_binary(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Success as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(data, Vec::<u8>::from(b"foobar" as &[u8]));
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Ok (empty slice)
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<&[u8], RustError> = Ok(b"");
+        let data = handle_c_error_binary(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Success as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(data, Vec::<u8>::new());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Ok (checksum)
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<Checksum, RustError> = Ok(Checksum::from([
+            0x72, 0x2c, 0x8c, 0x99, 0x3f, 0xd7, 0x5a, 0x76, 0x27, 0xd6, 0x9e, 0xd9, 0x41, 0x34,
+            0x4f, 0xe2, 0xa1, 0x42, 0x3a, 0x3e, 0x75, 0xef, 0xd3, 0xe6, 0x77, 0x8a, 0x14, 0x28,
+            0x84, 0x22, 0x71, 0x04,
+        ]));
+        let data = handle_c_error_binary(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Success as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(
+            data,
+            vec![
+                0x72, 0x2c, 0x8c, 0x99, 0x3f, 0xd7, 0x5a, 0x76, 0x27, 0xd6, 0x9e, 0xd9, 0x41, 0x34,
+                0x4f, 0xe2, 0xa1, 0x42, 0x3a, 0x3e, 0x75, 0xef, 0xd3, 0xe6, 0x77, 0x8a, 0x14, 0x28,
+                0x84, 0x22, 0x71, 0x04,
+            ]
+        );
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Err (vector)
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<Vec<u8>, RustError> = Err(RustError::panic());
+        let data = handle_c_error_binary(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Other as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(data, Vec::<u8>::new());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Err (slice)
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<&[u8], RustError> = Err(RustError::panic());
+        let data = handle_c_error_binary(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Other as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(data, Vec::<u8>::new());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Err (checksum)
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<Checksum, RustError> = Err(RustError::panic());
+        let data = handle_c_error_binary(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Other as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(data, Vec::<u8>::new());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn handle_c_error_binary_clears_an_old_error() {
+        // Err
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<Vec<u8>, RustError> = Err(RustError::panic());
+        let data = handle_c_error_binary(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Other as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(data, Vec::<u8>::new());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Ok
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<Vec<u8>, RustError> = Ok(vec![0xF0, 0x0B, 0xAA]);
+        let data = handle_c_error_binary(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Success as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(data, vec![0xF0, 0x0B, 0xAA]);
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn handle_c_error_default_works() {
+        // Ok (non-empty vector)
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<Vec<u8>, RustError> = Ok(vec![0xF0, 0x0B, 0xAA]);
+        let data = handle_c_error_default(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Success as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(data, vec![0xF0, 0x0B, 0xAA]);
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Ok (empty vector)
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<Vec<u8>, RustError> = Ok(vec![]);
+        let data = handle_c_error_default(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Success as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(data, Vec::<u8>::new());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Ok (non-empty slice)
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<&[u8], RustError> = Ok(b"foobar");
+        let data = handle_c_error_default(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Success as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(data, Vec::<u8>::from(b"foobar" as &[u8]));
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Ok (empty slice)
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<&[u8], RustError> = Ok(b"");
+        let data = handle_c_error_default(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Success as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(data, Vec::<u8>::new());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Ok (unit)
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<(), RustError> = Ok(());
+        handle_c_error_default(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Success as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Err (vector)
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<Vec<u8>, RustError> = Err(RustError::panic());
+        let data = handle_c_error_default(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Other as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(data, Vec::<u8>::new());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Err (slice)
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<&[u8], RustError> = Err(RustError::panic());
+        let data = handle_c_error_default(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Other as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(data, Vec::<u8>::new());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Err (unit)
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<(), RustError> = Err(RustError::panic());
+        handle_c_error_default(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Other as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_some());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn handle_c_error_default_clears_an_old_error() {
+        // Err
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<Vec<u8>, RustError> = Err(RustError::panic());
+        let data = handle_c_error_default(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Other as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_some());
+        assert_eq!(data, Vec::<u8>::new());
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+
+        // Ok
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let res: Result<Vec<u8>, RustError> = Ok(vec![0xF0, 0x0B, 0xAA]);
+        let data = handle_c_error_default(res, Some(&mut error_msg));
+        assert_eq!(errno().0, ErrnoValue::Success as i32);
+        assert!(error_msg.is_none());
+        assert_eq!(data, vec![0xF0, 0x0B, 0xAA]);
+        let _ = error_msg.consume();
+    }
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/examples/wasmvmstatic.rs b/libwasmvm/src/examples/wasmvmstatic.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..441dfda88
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/examples/wasmvmstatic.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+// This is an entry point into the library in order to set
+// crate-type = ["staticlib"] via a command line argument.
+// See `--example wasmvmstatic`
+
+pub use wasmvm::*;
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/gas_meter.rs b/libwasmvm/src/gas_meter.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..37291399a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/gas_meter.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+/// An opaque type. `*gas_meter_t` represents a pointer to Go memory holding the gas meter.
+#[repr(C)]
+pub struct gas_meter_t {
+    _private: [u8; 0],
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/gas_report.rs b/libwasmvm/src/gas_report.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..1f9e80ad6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/gas_report.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug)]
+#[repr(C)]
+pub struct GasReport {
+    /// The original limit the instance was created with
+    pub limit: u64,
+    /// The remaining gas that can be spend
+    pub remaining: u64,
+    /// The amount of gas that was spend and metered externally in operations triggered by this instance
+    pub used_externally: u64,
+    /// The amount of gas that was spend and metered internally (i.e. by executing Wasm and calling
+    /// API methods which are not metered externally)
+    pub used_internally: u64,
+}
+
+impl From<cosmwasm_vm::GasReport> for GasReport {
+    fn from(
+        cosmwasm_vm::GasReport {
+            limit,
+            remaining,
+            used_externally,
+            used_internally,
+        }: cosmwasm_vm::GasReport,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            limit,
+            remaining,
+            used_externally,
+            used_internally,
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/handle_vm_panic.rs b/libwasmvm/src/handle_vm_panic.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..0eb0dca9d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/handle_vm_panic.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+use std::any::Any;
+
+/// A function to process cases in which the VM panics.
+///
+/// We want to provide as much debug information as possible
+/// as those cases are not expated to happen during healthy operations.
+pub fn handle_vm_panic(what: &str, err: Box<dyn Any + Send + 'static>) {
+    eprintln!("Panic in {what}:");
+    eprintln!("{err:?}"); // Does not show useful information, see https://users.rust-lang.org/t/return-value-from-catch-unwind-is-a-useless-any/89134/6
+    eprintln!(
+        "This indicates a panic in during the operations of libwasmvm/cosmwasm-vm.
+Such panics must not happen and are considered bugs. If you see this in any real-world or
+close-to-real-world usage of wasmvm, please consider filing a security report,
+no matter if it can be abused or not:
+(https://github.com/CosmWasm/advisories/blob/main/SECURITY.md#reporting-a-vulnerability).
+Thank you for your help keeping CosmWasm safe and secure 💚"
+    );
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    use std::panic::catch_unwind;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn handle_vm_panic_works() {
+        fn nice_try() {
+            panic!("oh no!");
+        }
+        let err = catch_unwind(nice_try).unwrap_err();
+        handle_vm_panic("nice_try", err);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/iterator.rs b/libwasmvm/src/iterator.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..def6751fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/iterator.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,203 @@
+use cosmwasm_std::Record;
+use cosmwasm_vm::{BackendError, BackendResult, GasInfo};
+
+use crate::error::GoError;
+use crate::gas_meter::gas_meter_t;
+use crate::memory::UnmanagedVector;
+use crate::vtables::Vtable;
+
+/// A reference to some tables on the Go side which allow accessing
+/// the actual iterator instance.
+#[repr(C)]
+#[derive(Default, Copy, Clone)]
+pub struct IteratorReference {
+    /// An ID assigned to this contract call
+    pub call_id: u64,
+    /// An ID assigned to this iterator
+    pub iterator_id: u64,
+}
+
+// These functions should return GoError but because we don't trust them here, we treat the return value as i32
+// and then check it when converting to GoError manually
+#[repr(C)]
+#[derive(Default)]
+pub struct IteratorVtable {
+    pub next: Option<
+        extern "C" fn(
+            iterator: IteratorReference,
+            gas_meter: *mut gas_meter_t,
+            gas_used: *mut u64,
+            key_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            value_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            err_msg_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+        ) -> i32,
+    >,
+    pub next_key: Option<
+        extern "C" fn(
+            iterator: IteratorReference,
+            gas_meter: *mut gas_meter_t,
+            gas_used: *mut u64,
+            key_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            err_msg_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+        ) -> i32,
+    >,
+    pub next_value: Option<
+        extern "C" fn(
+            iterator: IteratorReference,
+            gas_meter: *mut gas_meter_t,
+            gas_used: *mut u64,
+            value_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            err_msg_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+        ) -> i32,
+    >,
+}
+
+impl Vtable for IteratorVtable {}
+
+#[repr(C)]
+pub struct GoIter {
+    pub gas_meter: *mut gas_meter_t,
+    /// A reference which identifies the iterator and allows finding and accessing the
+    /// actual iterator instance in Go. Once fully initialized, this is immutable.
+    pub reference: IteratorReference,
+    pub vtable: IteratorVtable,
+}
+
+impl GoIter {
+    /// Creates an incomplete GoIter with unset fields.
+    /// This is not ready to be used until those fields are set.
+    ///
+    /// This is needed to create a correct instance in Rust
+    /// which is then filled in Go (see `fn scan`).
+    pub fn stub() -> Self {
+        GoIter {
+            reference: IteratorReference::default(),
+            gas_meter: std::ptr::null_mut(),
+            vtable: IteratorVtable::default(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn next(&mut self) -> BackendResult<Option<Record>> {
+        let next = self
+            .vtable
+            .next
+            .expect("iterator vtable function 'next' not set");
+
+        let mut output_key = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut output_value = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut used_gas = 0_u64;
+        let go_result: GoError = (next)(
+            self.reference,
+            self.gas_meter,
+            &mut used_gas as *mut u64,
+            &mut output_key as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            &mut output_value as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            &mut error_msg as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+        )
+        .into();
+        // We destruct the `UnmanagedVector`s here, no matter if we need the data.
+        let output_key = output_key.consume();
+        let output_value = output_value.consume();
+
+        let gas_info = GasInfo::with_externally_used(used_gas);
+
+        // return complete error message (reading from buffer for GoError::Other)
+        let default = || "Failed to fetch next item from iterator".to_string();
+        unsafe {
+            if let Err(err) = go_result.into_result(error_msg, default) {
+                return (Err(err), gas_info);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let result = match output_key {
+            Some(key) => {
+                if let Some(value) = output_value {
+                    Ok(Some((key, value)))
+                } else {
+                    Err(BackendError::unknown(
+                        "Failed to read value while reading the next key in the db",
+                    ))
+                }
+            }
+            None => Ok(None),
+        };
+        (result, gas_info)
+    }
+
+    pub fn next_key(&mut self) -> BackendResult<Option<Vec<u8>>> {
+        let next_key = self
+            .vtable
+            .next_key
+            .expect("iterator vtable function 'next_key' not set");
+        self.next_key_or_val(next_key)
+    }
+
+    pub fn next_value(&mut self) -> BackendResult<Option<Vec<u8>>> {
+        let next_value = self
+            .vtable
+            .next_value
+            .expect("iterator vtable function 'next_value' not set");
+        self.next_key_or_val(next_value)
+    }
+
+    #[inline(always)]
+    fn next_key_or_val(
+        &mut self,
+        next: extern "C" fn(
+            iterator: IteratorReference,
+            gas_meter: *mut gas_meter_t,
+            gas_limit: *mut u64,
+            key_or_value_out: *mut UnmanagedVector, // key if called from next_key; value if called from next_value
+            err_msg_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+        ) -> i32,
+    ) -> BackendResult<Option<Vec<u8>>> {
+        let mut output = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut used_gas = 0_u64;
+        let go_result: GoError = (next)(
+            self.reference,
+            self.gas_meter,
+            &mut used_gas as *mut u64,
+            &mut output as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            &mut error_msg as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+        )
+        .into();
+        // We destruct the `UnmanagedVector`s here, no matter if we need the data.
+        let output = output.consume();
+
+        let gas_info = GasInfo::with_externally_used(used_gas);
+
+        // return complete error message (reading from buffer for GoError::Other)
+        let default = || "Failed to fetch next item from iterator".to_string();
+        unsafe {
+            if let Err(err) = go_result.into_result(error_msg, default) {
+                return (Err(err), gas_info);
+            }
+        }
+
+        (Ok(output), gas_info)
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod test {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn goiter_stub_works() {
+        // can be created and dropped
+        {
+            let _iter = GoIter::stub();
+        }
+
+        // creates an all null-instance
+        let iter = GoIter::stub();
+        assert!(iter.gas_meter.is_null());
+        assert_eq!(iter.reference.call_id, 0);
+        assert_eq!(iter.reference.iterator_id, 0);
+        assert!(iter.vtable.next.is_none());
+        assert!(iter.vtable.next_key.is_none());
+        assert!(iter.vtable.next_value.is_none());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/lib.rs b/libwasmvm/src/lib.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..9db5cb79f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/lib.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+#![cfg_attr(feature = "backtraces", feature(backtrace))]
+#![allow(clippy::not_unsafe_ptr_arg_deref, clippy::missing_safety_doc)]
+
+mod api;
+mod args;
+mod cache;
+mod calls;
+mod db;
+mod error;
+mod gas_meter;
+mod gas_report;
+mod handle_vm_panic;
+mod iterator;
+mod memory;
+mod querier;
+mod storage;
+mod test_utils;
+mod tests;
+mod version;
+mod vtables;
+
+// We only interact with this crate via `extern "C"` interfaces, not those public
+// exports. There are no guarantees those exports are stable.
+// We keep them here such that we can access them in the docs (`cargo doc`).
+pub use api::{GoApi, GoApiVtable};
+pub use cache::{cache_t, load_wasm};
+pub use db::{db_t, Db, DbVtable};
+pub use error::GoError;
+pub use gas_report::GasReport;
+pub use iterator::IteratorVtable;
+pub use memory::{
+    destroy_unmanaged_vector, new_unmanaged_vector, ByteSliceView, U8SliceView, UnmanagedVector,
+};
+pub use querier::{GoQuerier, QuerierVtable};
+pub use storage::GoStorage;
+pub use vtables::Vtable;
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/memory.rs b/libwasmvm/src/memory.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..9483ec37b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/memory.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,470 @@
+use std::mem;
+use std::slice;
+
+/// A view into an externally owned byte slice (Go `[]byte`).
+/// Use this for the current call only. A view cannot be copied for safety reasons.
+/// If you need a copy, use [`ByteSliceView::to_owned`].
+///
+/// Go's nil value is fully supported, such that we can differentiate between nil and an empty slice.
+#[repr(C)]
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct ByteSliceView {
+    /// True if and only if the byte slice is nil in Go. If this is true, the other fields must be ignored.
+    is_nil: bool,
+    ptr: *const u8,
+    len: usize,
+}
+
+impl ByteSliceView {
+    /// ByteSliceViews are only constructed in Go. This constructor is a way to mimic the behaviour
+    /// when testing FFI calls from Rust. It must not be used in production code.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub fn new(source: &[u8]) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            is_nil: false,
+            ptr: source.as_ptr(),
+            len: source.len(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// ByteSliceViews are only constructed in Go. This constructor is a way to mimic the behaviour
+    /// when testing FFI calls from Rust. It must not be used in production code.
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    pub fn nil() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            is_nil: true,
+            ptr: std::ptr::null::<u8>(),
+            len: 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Provides a reference to the included data to be parsed or copied elsewhere
+    /// This is safe as long as the `ByteSliceView` is constructed correctly.
+    pub fn read(&self) -> Option<&[u8]> {
+        if self.is_nil {
+            None
+        } else {
+            Some(
+                // "`data` must be non-null and aligned even for zero-length slices"
+                if self.len == 0 {
+                    let dangling = std::ptr::NonNull::<u8>::dangling();
+                    unsafe { slice::from_raw_parts(dangling.as_ptr(), 0) }
+                } else {
+                    unsafe { slice::from_raw_parts(self.ptr, self.len) }
+                },
+            )
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates an owned copy that can safely be stored and mutated.
+    #[allow(dead_code)]
+    pub fn to_owned(&self) -> Option<Vec<u8>> {
+        self.read().map(|slice| slice.to_owned())
+    }
+}
+
+/// A view into a `Option<&[u8]>`, created and maintained by Rust.
+///
+/// This can be copied into a []byte in Go.
+#[repr(C)]
+pub struct U8SliceView {
+    /// True if and only if this is None. If this is true, the other fields must be ignored.
+    is_none: bool,
+    ptr: *const u8,
+    len: usize,
+}
+
+impl U8SliceView {
+    pub fn new(source: Option<&[u8]>) -> Self {
+        match source {
+            Some(data) => Self {
+                is_none: false,
+                ptr: data.as_ptr(),
+                len: data.len(),
+            },
+            None => Self {
+                is_none: true,
+                ptr: std::ptr::null::<u8>(),
+                len: 0,
+            },
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// An optional Vector type that requires explicit creation and destruction
+/// and can be sent via FFI.
+/// It can be created from `Option<Vec<u8>>` and be converted into `Option<Vec<u8>>`.
+///
+/// This type is always created in Rust and always dropped in Rust.
+/// If Go code want to create it, it must instruct Rust to do so via the
+/// [`new_unmanaged_vector`] FFI export. If Go code wants to consume its data,
+/// it must create a copy and instruct Rust to destroy it via the
+/// [`destroy_unmanaged_vector`] FFI export.
+///
+/// An UnmanagedVector is immutable.
+///
+/// ## Ownership
+///
+/// Ownership is the right and the obligation to destroy an `UnmanagedVector`
+/// exactly once. Both Rust and Go can create an `UnmanagedVector`, which gives
+/// then ownership. Sometimes it is necessary to transfer ownership.
+///
+/// ### Transfer ownership from Rust to Go
+///
+/// When an `UnmanagedVector` was created in Rust using [`UnmanagedVector::new`], [`UnmanagedVector::default`]
+/// or [`new_unmanaged_vector`], it can be passed to Go as a return value (see e.g. [load_wasm][crate::load_wasm]).
+/// Rust then has no chance to destroy the vector anymore, so ownership is transferred to Go.
+/// In Go, the data has to be copied to a garbage collected `[]byte`. Then the vector must be destroyed
+/// using [`destroy_unmanaged_vector`].
+///
+/// ### Transfer ownership from Go to Rust
+///
+/// When Rust code calls into Go (using the vtable methods), return data or error messages must be created
+/// in Go. This is done by calling [`new_unmanaged_vector`] from Go, which copies data into a newly created
+/// `UnmanagedVector`. Since Go created it, it owns it. The ownership is then passed to Rust via the
+/// mutable return value pointers. On the Rust side, the vector is destroyed using [`UnmanagedVector::consume`].
+///
+/// ## Examples
+///
+/// Transferring ownership from Rust to Go using return values of FFI calls:
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use wasmvm::{cache_t, ByteSliceView, UnmanagedVector};
+/// #[no_mangle]
+/// pub extern "C" fn save_wasm_to_cache(
+///     cache: *mut cache_t,
+///     wasm: ByteSliceView,
+///     error_msg: Option<&mut UnmanagedVector>,
+/// ) -> UnmanagedVector {
+///     # let checksum: Vec<u8> = Default::default();
+///     // some operation producing a `let checksum: Vec<u8>`
+///
+///     UnmanagedVector::new(Some(checksum)) // this unmanaged vector is owned by the caller
+/// }
+/// ```
+///
+/// Transferring ownership from Go to Rust using return value pointers:
+///
+/// ```rust
+/// # use cosmwasm_vm::{BackendResult, GasInfo};
+/// # use wasmvm::{Db, GoError, U8SliceView, UnmanagedVector};
+/// fn db_read(db: &Db, key: &[u8]) -> BackendResult<Option<Vec<u8>>> {
+///
+///     // Create a None vector in order to reserve memory for the result
+///     let mut output = UnmanagedVector::default();
+///
+///     // …
+///     # let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+///     # let mut used_gas = 0_u64;
+///     # let read_db = db.vtable.read_db.unwrap();
+///
+///     let go_error: GoError = read_db(
+///         db.state,
+///         db.gas_meter,
+///         &mut used_gas as *mut u64,
+///         U8SliceView::new(Some(key)),
+///         // Go will create a new UnmanagedVector and override this address
+///         &mut output as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+///         &mut error_msg as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+///     )
+///     .into();
+///
+///     // We now own the new UnmanagedVector written to the pointer and must destroy it
+///     let value = output.consume();
+///
+///     // Some gas processing and error handling
+///     # let gas_info = GasInfo::free();
+///
+///     (Ok(value), gas_info)
+/// }
+/// ```
+///
+///
+/// If you want to mutate data, you need to consume the vector and create a new one:
+///
+/// ```rust
+/// # use wasmvm::{UnmanagedVector};
+/// # let input = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(vec![0xAA]));
+/// let mut mutable: Vec<u8> = input.consume().unwrap_or_default();
+/// assert_eq!(mutable, vec![0xAA]);
+///
+/// // `input` is now gone and we cam do everything we want to `mutable`,
+/// // including operations that reallocate the underlying data.
+///
+/// mutable.push(0xBB);
+/// mutable.push(0xCC);
+///
+/// assert_eq!(mutable, vec![0xAA, 0xBB, 0xCC]);
+///
+/// let output = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(mutable));
+///
+/// // `output` is ready to be passed around
+/// ```
+#[repr(C)]
+#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct UnmanagedVector {
+    /// True if and only if this is None. If this is true, the other fields must be ignored.
+    is_none: bool,
+    ptr: *mut u8,
+    len: usize,
+    cap: usize,
+}
+
+impl UnmanagedVector {
+    /// Consumes this optional vector for manual management.
+    /// This is a zero-copy operation.
+    pub fn new(source: Option<Vec<u8>>) -> Self {
+        match source {
+            Some(data) => {
+                let (ptr, len, cap) = {
+                    if data.capacity() == 0 {
+                        // we need to explicitly use a null pointer here, since `as_mut_ptr`
+                        // always returns a dangling pointer (e.g. 0x01) on an empty Vec,
+                        // which trips up Go's pointer checks.
+                        // This is safe because the Vec has not allocated, so no memory is leaked.
+                        (std::ptr::null_mut::<u8>(), 0, 0)
+                    } else {
+                        // Can be replaced with Vec::into_raw_parts when stable
+                        // https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/vec/struct.Vec.html#method.into_raw_parts
+                        let mut data = mem::ManuallyDrop::new(data);
+                        (data.as_mut_ptr(), data.len(), data.capacity())
+                    }
+                };
+                Self {
+                    is_none: false,
+                    ptr,
+                    len,
+                    cap,
+                }
+            }
+            None => Self {
+                is_none: true,
+                ptr: std::ptr::null_mut::<u8>(),
+                len: 0,
+                cap: 0,
+            },
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a non-none UnmanagedVector with the given data.
+    pub fn some(data: impl Into<Vec<u8>>) -> Self {
+        Self::new(Some(data.into()))
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a none UnmanagedVector.
+    pub fn none() -> Self {
+        Self::new(None)
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_none(&self) -> bool {
+        self.is_none
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_some(&self) -> bool {
+        !self.is_none()
+    }
+
+    /// Takes this UnmanagedVector and turns it into a regular, managed Rust vector.
+    /// Calling this on two copies of UnmanagedVector leads to double free crashes.
+    pub fn consume(self) -> Option<Vec<u8>> {
+        if self.is_none {
+            None
+        } else if self.cap == 0 {
+            // capacity 0 means the vector was never allocated and
+            // the ptr field does not point to an actual byte buffer
+            // (we normalize to `null` in `UnmanagedVector::new`),
+            // so no memory is leaked by ignoring the ptr field here.
+            Some(Vec::new())
+        } else {
+            Some(unsafe { Vec::from_raw_parts(self.ptr, self.len, self.cap) })
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for UnmanagedVector {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::none()
+    }
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn new_unmanaged_vector(
+    nil: bool,
+    ptr: *const u8,
+    length: usize,
+) -> UnmanagedVector {
+    if nil {
+        UnmanagedVector::new(None)
+    } else if length == 0 {
+        UnmanagedVector::new(Some(Vec::new()))
+    } else {
+        // In slice::from_raw_parts, `data` must be non-null and aligned even for zero-length slices.
+        // For this reason we cover the length == 0 case separately above.
+        let external_memory = unsafe { slice::from_raw_parts(ptr, length) };
+        let copy = Vec::from(external_memory);
+        UnmanagedVector::new(Some(copy))
+    }
+}
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn destroy_unmanaged_vector(v: UnmanagedVector) {
+    let _ = v.consume();
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod test {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn byte_slice_view_read_works() {
+        let data = vec![0xAA, 0xBB, 0xCC];
+        let view = ByteSliceView::new(&data);
+        assert_eq!(view.read().unwrap(), &[0xAA, 0xBB, 0xCC]);
+
+        let data = vec![];
+        let view = ByteSliceView::new(&data);
+        assert_eq!(view.read().unwrap(), &[] as &[u8]);
+
+        let view = ByteSliceView::nil();
+        assert!(view.read().is_none());
+
+        // This is what we get when creating a ByteSliceView for an empty []byte in Go
+        let view = ByteSliceView {
+            is_nil: false,
+            ptr: std::ptr::null::<u8>(),
+            len: 0,
+        };
+        assert!(view.read().is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn byte_slice_view_to_owned_works() {
+        let data = vec![0xAA, 0xBB, 0xCC];
+        let view = ByteSliceView::new(&data);
+        assert_eq!(view.to_owned().unwrap(), vec![0xAA, 0xBB, 0xCC]);
+
+        let data = vec![];
+        let view = ByteSliceView::new(&data);
+        assert_eq!(view.to_owned().unwrap(), Vec::<u8>::new());
+
+        let view = ByteSliceView::nil();
+        assert!(view.to_owned().is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unmanaged_vector_new_works() {
+        // With data
+        let x = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(vec![0x11, 0x22]));
+        assert!(!x.is_none);
+        assert_ne!(x.ptr as usize, 0);
+        assert_eq!(x.len, 2);
+        assert_eq!(x.cap, 2);
+
+        // Empty data
+        let x = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(vec![]));
+        assert!(!x.is_none);
+        assert_eq!(x.ptr as usize, 0);
+        assert_eq!(x.len, 0);
+        assert_eq!(x.cap, 0);
+
+        // None
+        let x = UnmanagedVector::new(None);
+        assert!(x.is_none);
+        assert_eq!(x.ptr as usize, 0); // this is not guaranteed, could be anything
+        assert_eq!(x.len, 0); // this is not guaranteed, could be anything
+        assert_eq!(x.cap, 0); // this is not guaranteed, could be anything
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unmanaged_vector_some_works() {
+        // With data
+        let x = UnmanagedVector::some(vec![0x11, 0x22]);
+        assert!(!x.is_none);
+        assert_ne!(x.ptr as usize, 0);
+        assert_eq!(x.len, 2);
+        assert_eq!(x.cap, 2);
+
+        // Empty data
+        let x = UnmanagedVector::some(vec![]);
+        assert!(!x.is_none);
+        assert_eq!(x.ptr as usize, 0);
+        assert_eq!(x.len, 0);
+        assert_eq!(x.cap, 0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unmanaged_vector_none_works() {
+        let x = UnmanagedVector::new(None);
+        assert!(x.is_none);
+
+        assert_eq!(x.ptr as usize, 0); // this is not guaranteed, could be anything
+        assert_eq!(x.len, 0); // this is not guaranteed, could be anything
+        assert_eq!(x.cap, 0); // this is not guaranteed, could be anything
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unmanaged_vector_is_some_works() {
+        let x = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(vec![0x11, 0x22]));
+        assert!(x.is_some());
+        let x = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(vec![]));
+        assert!(x.is_some());
+        let x = UnmanagedVector::new(None);
+        assert!(!x.is_some());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unmanaged_vector_is_none_works() {
+        let x = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(vec![0x11, 0x22]));
+        assert!(!x.is_none());
+        let x = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(vec![]));
+        assert!(!x.is_none());
+        let x = UnmanagedVector::new(None);
+        assert!(x.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unmanaged_vector_consume_works() {
+        let x = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(vec![0x11, 0x22]));
+        assert_eq!(x.consume(), Some(vec![0x11u8, 0x22]));
+        let x = UnmanagedVector::new(Some(vec![]));
+        assert_eq!(x.consume(), Some(Vec::<u8>::new()));
+        let x = UnmanagedVector::new(None);
+        assert_eq!(x.consume(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn unmanaged_vector_defaults_to_none() {
+        let x = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        assert_eq!(x.consume(), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn new_unmanaged_vector_works() {
+        // Some simple data
+        let data = b"some stuff";
+        let x = new_unmanaged_vector(false, data.as_ptr(), data.len());
+        assert_eq!(x.consume(), Some(Vec::<u8>::from(b"some stuff" as &[u8])));
+
+        // empty created in Rust
+        let data = b"";
+        let x = new_unmanaged_vector(false, data.as_ptr(), data.len());
+        assert_eq!(x.consume(), Some(Vec::<u8>::new()));
+
+        // empty created in Go
+        let x = new_unmanaged_vector(false, std::ptr::null::<u8>(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(x.consume(), Some(Vec::<u8>::new()));
+
+        // nil with garbage pointer
+        let x = new_unmanaged_vector(true, 345 as *const u8, 46);
+        assert_eq!(x.consume(), None);
+
+        // nil with empty slice
+        let data = b"";
+        let x = new_unmanaged_vector(true, data.as_ptr(), data.len());
+        assert_eq!(x.consume(), None);
+
+        // nil with null pointer
+        let x = new_unmanaged_vector(true, std::ptr::null::<u8>(), 0);
+        assert_eq!(x.consume(), None);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/querier.rs b/libwasmvm/src/querier.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..993de86c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/querier.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
+use cosmwasm_std::{Binary, ContractResult, SystemError, SystemResult};
+use cosmwasm_vm::{BackendResult, GasInfo, Querier};
+
+use crate::error::GoError;
+use crate::memory::{U8SliceView, UnmanagedVector};
+use crate::Vtable;
+
+// this represents something passed in from the caller side of FFI
+#[repr(C)]
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct querier_t {
+    _private: [u8; 0],
+}
+
+#[repr(C)]
+#[derive(Clone, Default)]
+pub struct QuerierVtable {
+    // We return errors through the return buffer, but may return non-zero error codes on panic
+    pub query_external: Option<
+        extern "C" fn(
+            querier: *const querier_t,
+            gas_limit: u64,
+            gas_used: *mut u64,
+            request: U8SliceView,
+            result_out: *mut UnmanagedVector, // A JSON encoded SystemResult<ContractResult<Binary>>
+            err_msg_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+        ) -> i32,
+    >,
+}
+
+impl Vtable for QuerierVtable {}
+
+#[repr(C)]
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct GoQuerier {
+    pub state: *const querier_t,
+    pub vtable: QuerierVtable,
+}
+
+// TODO: check if we can do this safer...
+unsafe impl Send for GoQuerier {}
+
+impl Querier for GoQuerier {
+    fn query_raw(
+        &self,
+        request: &[u8],
+        gas_limit: u64,
+    ) -> BackendResult<SystemResult<ContractResult<Binary>>> {
+        let mut output = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut used_gas = 0_u64;
+        let query_external = self
+            .vtable
+            .query_external
+            .expect("vtable function 'query_external' not set");
+        let go_result: GoError = query_external(
+            self.state,
+            gas_limit,
+            &mut used_gas as *mut u64,
+            U8SliceView::new(Some(request)),
+            &mut output as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            &mut error_msg as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+        )
+        .into();
+        // We destruct the UnmanagedVector here, no matter if we need the data.
+        let output = output.consume();
+
+        let gas_info = GasInfo::with_externally_used(used_gas);
+
+        // return complete error message (reading from buffer for GoError::Other)
+        let default = || {
+            format!(
+                "Failed to query another contract with this request: {}",
+                String::from_utf8_lossy(request)
+            )
+        };
+        unsafe {
+            if let Err(err) = go_result.into_result(error_msg, default) {
+                return (Err(err), gas_info);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let bin_result: Vec<u8> = output.unwrap_or_default();
+        let sys_result: SystemResult<_> = serde_json::from_slice(&bin_result).unwrap_or_else(|e| {
+            SystemResult::Err(SystemError::InvalidResponse {
+                error: format!("Parsing Go response: {e}"),
+                response: bin_result.into(),
+            })
+        });
+        (Ok(sys_result), gas_info)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/storage.rs b/libwasmvm/src/storage.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..98fcb9375
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/storage.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,211 @@
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::convert::TryInto;
+
+use cosmwasm_std::{Order, Record};
+use cosmwasm_vm::{BackendError, BackendResult, GasInfo, Storage};
+
+use crate::db::Db;
+use crate::error::GoError;
+use crate::iterator::GoIter;
+use crate::memory::{U8SliceView, UnmanagedVector};
+
+pub struct GoStorage {
+    db: Db,
+    iterators: HashMap<u32, GoIter>,
+}
+
+impl GoStorage {
+    pub fn new(db: Db) -> Self {
+        GoStorage {
+            db,
+            iterators: HashMap::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Storage for GoStorage {
+    fn get(&self, key: &[u8]) -> BackendResult<Option<Vec<u8>>> {
+        let mut output = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut used_gas = 0_u64;
+        let read_db = self
+            .db
+            .vtable
+            .read_db
+            .expect("vtable function 'read_db' not set");
+        let go_error: GoError = read_db(
+            self.db.state,
+            self.db.gas_meter,
+            &mut used_gas as *mut u64,
+            U8SliceView::new(Some(key)),
+            &mut output as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+            &mut error_msg as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+        )
+        .into();
+        // We destruct the UnmanagedVector here, no matter if we need the data.
+        let output = output.consume();
+
+        let gas_info = GasInfo::with_externally_used(used_gas);
+
+        // return complete error message (reading from buffer for GoError::Other)
+        let default = || {
+            format!(
+                "Failed to read a key in the db: {}",
+                String::from_utf8_lossy(key)
+            )
+        };
+        unsafe {
+            if let Err(err) = go_error.into_result(error_msg, default) {
+                return (Err(err), gas_info);
+            }
+        }
+
+        (Ok(output), gas_info)
+    }
+
+    fn scan(
+        &mut self,
+        start: Option<&[u8]>,
+        end: Option<&[u8]>,
+        order: Order,
+    ) -> BackendResult<u32> {
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut iter = GoIter::stub();
+        let mut used_gas = 0_u64;
+        let scan_db = self
+            .db
+            .vtable
+            .scan_db
+            .expect("vtable function 'scan_db' not set");
+        let go_error: GoError = scan_db(
+            self.db.state,
+            self.db.gas_meter,
+            &mut used_gas as *mut u64,
+            U8SliceView::new(start),
+            U8SliceView::new(end),
+            order.into(),
+            &mut iter as *mut GoIter,
+            &mut error_msg as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+        )
+        .into();
+        let gas_info = GasInfo::with_externally_used(used_gas);
+
+        // return complete error message (reading from buffer for GoError::Other)
+        let default = || {
+            format!(
+                "Failed to read the next key between {:?} and {:?}",
+                start.map(String::from_utf8_lossy),
+                end.map(String::from_utf8_lossy),
+            )
+        };
+        unsafe {
+            if let Err(err) = go_error.into_result(error_msg, default) {
+                return (Err(err), gas_info);
+            }
+        }
+
+        let next_id: u32 = self
+            .iterators
+            .len()
+            .try_into()
+            .expect("Iterator count exceeded uint32 range. This is a bug.");
+        self.iterators.insert(next_id, iter); // This moves iter. Is this okay?
+        (Ok(next_id), gas_info)
+    }
+
+    fn next(&mut self, iterator_id: u32) -> BackendResult<Option<Record>> {
+        let Some(iterator) = self.iterators.get_mut(&iterator_id) else {
+            return (
+                Err(BackendError::iterator_does_not_exist(iterator_id)),
+                GasInfo::free(),
+            );
+        };
+        iterator.next()
+    }
+
+    fn next_key(&mut self, iterator_id: u32) -> BackendResult<Option<Vec<u8>>> {
+        let Some(iterator) = self.iterators.get_mut(&iterator_id) else {
+            return (
+                Err(BackendError::iterator_does_not_exist(iterator_id)),
+                GasInfo::free(),
+            );
+        };
+
+        iterator.next_key()
+    }
+
+    fn next_value(&mut self, iterator_id: u32) -> BackendResult<Option<Vec<u8>>> {
+        let Some(iterator) = self.iterators.get_mut(&iterator_id) else {
+            return (
+                Err(BackendError::iterator_does_not_exist(iterator_id)),
+                GasInfo::free(),
+            );
+        };
+
+        iterator.next_value()
+    }
+
+    fn set(&mut self, key: &[u8], value: &[u8]) -> BackendResult<()> {
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut used_gas = 0_u64;
+        let write_db = self
+            .db
+            .vtable
+            .write_db
+            .expect("vtable function 'write_db' not set");
+        let go_error: GoError = write_db(
+            self.db.state,
+            self.db.gas_meter,
+            &mut used_gas as *mut u64,
+            U8SliceView::new(Some(key)),
+            U8SliceView::new(Some(value)),
+            &mut error_msg as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+        )
+        .into();
+        let gas_info = GasInfo::with_externally_used(used_gas);
+        // return complete error message (reading from buffer for GoError::Other)
+        let default = || {
+            format!(
+                "Failed to set a key in the db: {}",
+                String::from_utf8_lossy(key),
+            )
+        };
+        unsafe {
+            if let Err(err) = go_error.into_result(error_msg, default) {
+                return (Err(err), gas_info);
+            }
+        }
+        (Ok(()), gas_info)
+    }
+
+    fn remove(&mut self, key: &[u8]) -> BackendResult<()> {
+        let mut error_msg = UnmanagedVector::default();
+        let mut used_gas = 0_u64;
+        let remove_db = self
+            .db
+            .vtable
+            .remove_db
+            .expect("vtable function 'remove_db' not set");
+        let go_error: GoError = remove_db(
+            self.db.state,
+            self.db.gas_meter,
+            &mut used_gas as *mut u64,
+            U8SliceView::new(Some(key)),
+            &mut error_msg as *mut UnmanagedVector,
+        )
+        .into();
+        let gas_info = GasInfo::with_externally_used(used_gas);
+        let default = || {
+            format!(
+                "Failed to delete a key in the db: {}",
+                String::from_utf8_lossy(key),
+            )
+        };
+        unsafe {
+            if let Err(err) = go_error.into_result(error_msg, default) {
+                return (Err(err), gas_info);
+            }
+        }
+        (Ok(()), gas_info)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/test_utils.rs b/libwasmvm/src/test_utils.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..9dbd08dc8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/test_utils.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+#![cfg(test)]
+
+use cosmwasm_std::{Decimal, Uint128};
+use std::str::FromStr as _;
+
+/// Asserts that two expressions are approximately equal to each other.
+///
+/// The `max_rel_diff` argument defines the maximum relative difference
+/// of the `left` and `right` values.
+///
+/// On panic, this macro will print the values of the arguments and
+/// the actual relative difference.
+///
+/// Like [`assert_eq!`], this macro has a second form, where a custom
+/// panic message can be provided.
+#[macro_export]
+macro_rules! assert_approx_eq {
+    ($left:expr, $right:expr, $max_rel_diff:expr $(,)?) => {{
+        $crate::test_utils::assert_approx_eq_impl($left, $right, $max_rel_diff, None);
+    }};
+    ($left:expr, $right:expr, $max_rel_diff:expr, $($args:tt)+) => {{
+        $crate::test_utils::assert_approx_eq_impl($left, $right, $max_rel_diff, Some(format!($($args)*)));
+    }};
+}
+
+#[track_caller]
+pub fn assert_approx_eq_impl<U: Into<Uint128>>(
+    left: U,
+    right: U,
+    max_rel_diff: &str,
+    panic_msg: Option<String>,
+) {
+    let left = left.into();
+    let right = right.into();
+    let max_rel_diff = Decimal::from_str(max_rel_diff).unwrap();
+
+    let largest = std::cmp::max(left, right);
+    let rel_diff = Decimal::from_ratio(left.abs_diff(right), largest);
+
+    if rel_diff > max_rel_diff {
+        match panic_msg {
+            Some(panic_msg) => panic!(
+                "assertion failed: `(left ≈ right)`\nleft: {left}\nright: {right}\nrelative difference: {rel_diff}\nmax allowed relative difference: {max_rel_diff}\n: {panic_msg}"
+            ),
+            None => panic!(
+                "assertion failed: `(left ≈ right)`\nleft: {left}\nright: {right}\nrelative difference: {rel_diff}\nmax allowed relative difference: {max_rel_diff}\n"
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+mod tests {
+    #[test]
+    fn assert_approx() {
+        assert_approx_eq!(9_u32, 10_u32, "0.12");
+        assert_approx_eq!(9_u64, 10_u64, "0.12");
+        assert_approx_eq!(
+            9_000_000_000_000_000_000_000_000_000_000_000_000_u128,
+            10_000_000_000_000_000_000_000_000_000_000_000_000_u128,
+            "0.10"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn assert_approx_with_vars() {
+        let a = 66_u32;
+        let b = 67_u32;
+        assert_approx_eq!(a, b, "0.02");
+
+        let a = 66_u64;
+        let b = 67_u64;
+        assert_approx_eq!(a, b, "0.02");
+
+        let a = 66_u128;
+        let b = 67_u128;
+        assert_approx_eq!(a, b, "0.02");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(
+        expected = "assertion failed: `(left ≈ right)`\nleft: 8\nright: 10\nrelative difference: 0.2\nmax allowed relative difference: 0.12\n"
+    )]
+    fn assert_approx_fail() {
+        assert_approx_eq!(8_u32, 10_u32, "0.12");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(
+        expected = "assertion failed: `(left ≈ right)`\nleft: 17\nright: 20\nrelative difference: 0.15\nmax allowed relative difference: 0.12\n: some extra info about the error"
+    )]
+    fn assert_approx_with_custom_panic_msg() {
+        assert_approx_eq!(
+            17_u32,
+            20_u32,
+            "0.12",
+            "some extra {} about the error",
+            "info"
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/tests.rs b/libwasmvm/src/tests.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..5c8a7f179
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/tests.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+#![cfg(test)]
+
+use tempfile::TempDir;
+
+use cosmwasm_vm::testing::{mock_backend, mock_env, mock_info, mock_instance_with_gas_limit};
+use cosmwasm_vm::{
+    call_execute_raw, call_instantiate_raw, capabilities_from_csv, to_vec, Cache, CacheOptions,
+    InstanceOptions, Size,
+};
+
+static CYBERPUNK: &[u8] = include_bytes!("../../testdata/cyberpunk.wasm");
+const MEMORY_CACHE_SIZE: Size = Size::mebi(200);
+const MEMORY_LIMIT: Size = Size::mebi(32);
+const GAS_LIMIT: u64 = 200_000_000_000; // ~0.2ms
+
+#[test]
+fn handle_cpu_loop_with_cache() {
+    let backend = mock_backend(&[]);
+    let options = CacheOptions::new(
+        TempDir::new().unwrap().path().to_path_buf(),
+        capabilities_from_csv("staking"),
+        MEMORY_CACHE_SIZE,
+        MEMORY_LIMIT,
+    );
+    let cache = unsafe { Cache::new(options) }.unwrap();
+
+    let options = InstanceOptions {
+        gas_limit: GAS_LIMIT,
+    };
+
+    // store code
+    let checksum = cache.store_code(CYBERPUNK, true, true).unwrap();
+
+    // instantiate
+    let env = mock_env();
+    let info = mock_info("creator", &[]);
+    let mut instance = cache.get_instance(&checksum, backend, options).unwrap();
+    let raw_env = to_vec(&env).unwrap();
+    let raw_info = to_vec(&info).unwrap();
+    let res = call_instantiate_raw(&mut instance, &raw_env, &raw_info, b"{}");
+    let gas_left = instance.get_gas_left();
+    let gas_used = options.gas_limit - gas_left;
+    println!("Init gas left: {gas_left}, used: {gas_used}");
+    assert!(res.is_ok());
+    let backend = instance.recycle().unwrap();
+
+    // execute
+    let mut instance = cache.get_instance(&checksum, backend, options).unwrap();
+    let raw_msg = br#"{"cpu_loop":{}}"#;
+    let res = call_execute_raw(&mut instance, &raw_env, &raw_info, raw_msg);
+    let gas_left = instance.get_gas_left();
+    let gas_used = options.gas_limit - gas_left;
+    println!("Handle gas left: {gas_left}, used: {gas_used}");
+    assert!(res.is_err());
+    assert_eq!(gas_left, 0);
+    let _ = instance.recycle();
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn handle_cpu_loop_no_cache() {
+    let gas_limit = GAS_LIMIT;
+    let mut instance = mock_instance_with_gas_limit(CYBERPUNK, gas_limit);
+
+    // instantiate
+    let env = mock_env();
+    let info = mock_info("creator", &[]);
+    let raw_env = to_vec(&env).unwrap();
+    let raw_info = to_vec(&info).unwrap();
+    let res = call_instantiate_raw(&mut instance, &raw_env, &raw_info, b"{}");
+    let gas_left = instance.get_gas_left();
+    let gas_used = gas_limit - gas_left;
+    println!("Init gas left: {gas_left}, used: {gas_used}");
+    assert!(res.is_ok());
+
+    // execute
+    let raw_msg = br#"{"cpu_loop":{}}"#;
+    let res = call_execute_raw(&mut instance, &raw_env, &raw_info, raw_msg);
+    let gas_left = instance.get_gas_left();
+    let gas_used = gas_limit - gas_left;
+    println!("Handle gas left: {gas_left}, used: {gas_used}");
+    assert!(res.is_err());
+    assert_eq!(gas_left, 0);
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/version.rs b/libwasmvm/src/version.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..a0181d8b0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/version.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+use std::os::raw::c_char;
+
+static VERSION: &str = concat!(env!("CARGO_PKG_VERSION"), "\0"); // Add trailing NULL byte for C string
+
+/// Returns a version number of this library as a C string.
+///
+/// The string is owned by libwasmvm and must not be mutated or destroyed by the caller.
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn version_str() -> *const c_char {
+    VERSION.as_ptr() as *const _
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use std::ffi::CStr;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn version_works() {
+        // Returns the same pointer every time
+        let ptr1 = version_str();
+        let ptr2 = version_str();
+        assert_eq!(ptr1, ptr2);
+
+        // Contains correct data
+        let version_ptr = version_str();
+        let version_str = unsafe { CStr::from_ptr(version_ptr) }.to_str().unwrap();
+        // assert_eq!(version_str, "1.2.3");
+
+        let mut parts = version_str.split('-');
+        let version_core = parts.next().unwrap();
+        let components = version_core.split('.').collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        assert_eq!(components.len(), 3);
+        assert!(
+            components[0].chars().all(|c| c.is_ascii_digit()),
+            "Invalid major component: '{}'",
+            components[0]
+        );
+        assert!(
+            components[1].chars().all(|c| c.is_ascii_digit()),
+            "Invalid minor component: '{}'",
+            components[1]
+        );
+        assert!(
+            components[2].chars().all(|c| c.is_ascii_digit()),
+            "Invalid patch component: '{}'",
+            components[2]
+        );
+        if let Some(prerelease) = parts.next() {
+            assert!(prerelease
+                .chars()
+                .all(|c| c == '.' || c.is_ascii_alphanumeric()));
+        }
+        assert_eq!(parts.next(), None);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/libwasmvm/src/vtables.rs b/libwasmvm/src/vtables.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..eca736ff3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libwasmvm/src/vtables.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+/// Vtables are a collection of free function. Those functions are created in Go and
+/// then assigned via function pointers that Rust can call. The functions do not
+/// change during the lifetime of the object.
+///
+/// Since the functions are free, a single function is used for multiple instances.
+/// In fact, in Go we create a single global vtable variable holding and owning the
+/// function the vtables in Rust point to.
+///
+/// The `Vtable` trait is created to find those vtables throughout the codebase.
+///
+/// ## Nullability
+///
+/// Since all functions are represented as a function pointer, they are naturally
+/// nullable. I.e. in Go we can always set them to `nil`. For this reason the functions
+/// are all wrapped in Options, e.g.
+///
+/// ```
+/// # use wasmvm::UnmanagedVector;
+/// # struct IteratorReference;
+/// # struct gas_meter_t;
+/// pub struct IteratorVtable {
+///     pub next: Option<
+///         extern "C" fn(
+///             iterator: IteratorReference,
+///             gas_meter: *mut gas_meter_t,
+///             gas_used: *mut u64,
+///             key_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+///             value_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+///             err_msg_out: *mut UnmanagedVector,
+///         ) -> i32,
+///     >,
+///     // ...
+/// }
+/// ```
+///
+/// Or to say it in the words of [the Rust documentation](https://doc.rust-lang.org/nomicon/ffi.html#the-nullable-pointer-optimization):
+///
+/// > So `Option<extern "C" fn(c_int) -> c_int>` is a correct way to represent a nullable function pointer using the C ABI (corresponding to the C type `int (*)(int))`.
+///
+/// Since all vtable fields are nullable, we can easily demand them
+/// to have a Default implementation. This sometimes is handy when a
+/// type is created in Rust and then filled in Go.
+///
+/// Missing vtable fields always indicate a lifecycle bug in wasmvm and
+/// should be treated with a panic.
+pub trait Vtable: Default {}